Chapter 04 · 2112 – 2004 BCE
Ur III · Neo-Sumerian
A bureaucratic golden age, the Code of Ur-Nammu.
~2050 BCE · CUNES 49-02-026 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0074
In plain English
The tablet is a work-crew ledger, badly broken at the start and end. It records: some number of workers doing unspecified work; four more men working as builders; a group of workers assigned to clay work under a man named Ili-de'a; another crew — men and twenty-five women — put to carrying clay and piling it up somewhere; a group sent off with fresh reeds to the mill-house; a crew logged simply as a 'booked expenditure'; workers stationed in the storehouse; and workers posted at the gate of the craftsman's workshop. The opening and closing sections of the tablet are lost, so we don't know the full headcount, the overseer's name, or the date formula that would normally close out such a roster.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] [n] workers ... [...] [n+]4 workers: builders (šitim) [n] workers: (assigned to) clay, stationed under Ili-de'a [n] workers, 25 female workers: (assigned) to carry clay [...] to deposit/pile it, stationed (for this task) [n] workers: (with) fresh reeds ..., went to the mill-house (e2-ar3-ra) [n] workers: booked expenditure, stationed [n] workers: sitting/residing in the storehouse (ga2-nun-na) [n] workers: sitting at the gate of the craftsman's house (e2-gaszam) [...]”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 48-08-008 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0089
In plain English
This tablet logs a crew of six construction workers at Garšana. Three were on loan as a special allotment; the other three worked under the man Warad-Ea. Of the six, one was put to work molding bricks, another worked with bricks in some capacity, and four more were assigned to leveling or scraping ground at a building called Eki-bagara, associated with a person or place named Ubarria. The entry is logged as an official expenditure of labor, confirmed by an inspection, and processed through the household manager Iškur-illat. It's dated to day 5 of the month 'u5-bi2-gu7,' in the year that the land of Zabšali was destroyed (a year-name from Šulgi's reign).
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 male builders — men of the gift-allotment (nig2-ba); 3 male builders — (under) Warad-Ea; From among them: 1 male builder, stationed at brick-[...]-molding(?); 1 male worker (ma-šub-ba worker), stationed at bricks [...]; 4 male builders [...], stationed doing leveling/scraping work at the house Eki-bagara (of) Ubarria; It is a booked-out expenditure. Inspection performed. Via Iškur-illat, the household manager (šabra). Month: "u5-bi2-gu7." Year: "the land of Zabšali was destroyed." Day 5.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 48-04-069 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0090
In plain English
This tablet logs labor accounting from the Garšana estate. Three builders belong to a group called 'men of the gift-allotment,' and three more builders are listed as servants of the house of A — six workers in total. Of these, six builders were assigned on a certain day to a task associated with a person named Elunumne-Erigal, apparently involving bread or baking, though the exact wording is damaged. The total of six workers is recorded as the formal expenditure for this assignment. An inspection was carried out, processed through the official Iškur-illat, the household manager. The record is dated to the 16th day of the month Ubibigu, in the year King Šu-Suen destroyed the land of Zabšali.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 male builders (šitim), men of the gift-allotment (lu2 nig2-ba), 3 male builders, servants of the house of A, 6 (total), therefrom: 6 male builders, when Elunumne-Erigal(?) [bread?] to bake(?), 6 (total), is the booked-out expenditure. Inspection performed, via Iškur-illat, the household manager (šabra). Month: "Ubibigu" (u5-bi2-gu7), year: "the land of Zabšali was destroyed," the 16th day.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 49-02-012 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0171
In plain English
This tablet logs work crews at the Garšana estate: three men under foreman Šu-Dumuzi, three women under foreman Zala'a (identified as hired hands), and three more men under foreman Beli-ili. The text breaks off, and then resumes noting that the crews were assigned to grind malt, with an inspection carried out to confirm the labor. It's dated to the month of the Šulgi festival, in the year King Šulgi destroyed the land of Zabšali — a standard bureaucratic dating formula from the Ur III period.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 male laborers, foreman: Šu-Dumuzi. 3 female laborers, foreman: Zala'a. They are hired workers. 3 male laborers, foreman: Beli-ili. [...] (break) to grind malt. Inspection performed. Month: "Festival of Šulgi." Year: "The land of Zabšali was destroyed."”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 49-02-021 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0178
In plain English
This record tallies work crews assigned to an earth-moving job: 71 laborers under one foreman (name lost), 1 laborer named Me-e'a, 52 laborers under foreman Zala'a, and 171 and a half laborers under foreman Ibni-ilum. Together they excavated and hauled earth for the garden at Zabala. The job was checked off by an official inspection. The record is dated to the month of the Šu-Suen festival, in the year King Šu-Suen destroyed the land of Zabšali. The tablet breaks off after this, so whatever followed is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“71 workmen [...] 1 workman: Me-e'a 52 workmen, foreman: Zala'a 171 1/2 workmen, foreman: Ibni-ilum. Earth removed (excavated), carried/hauled — [in-la2, du5-la2, function uncertain] — (for) the garden of Zabala. Inspection performed. Month: 'Festival of Šu-Suen.' Year: 'The land of Zabšali was destroyed' [(by) Šu-Suen]. [...] (text breaks off)”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 48-06-107 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0212
In plain English
The top of this tablet is broken away. What survives is a roster of work crews: one gang of at least six men under the foreman Beli-ili, who is identified as a servant of Eameš; a larger crew of 23 men and 14 women under foreman Bazi; 13 men and 11 women under foreman Mea; and 3 men and 3 women under foreman Zala. More entries are lost in a gap. The totals give 10 workers (evidently builders), 53 men, and 28 women overall. The account is formally closed as an expenditure, and the record notes that the tally was checked through the officials Iškur-illat and Puzur-Ninkar.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] [...] [n+]6 workers (gurusz), overseer: Beli-ili, servant of Eameš. 23 workers, 14 female workers (geme2), overseer: Bazi. 13 workers, 11 female workers, overseer: Mea. 3 workers, 3 female workers, overseer: Zala. [...] Total: 10 [workers, masons/builders (šitim)]. Total: 53 [workers]. Total: 28 [female workers]. It is a booked expenditure (zi-ga-am3). [Inspection carried out], via Iškur-illat and Puzur-Ninkar.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 48-04-059 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0214
In plain English
This broken tablet records crews of construction workers at the Garšana estate. It lists three male builders assigned to a man named Niĝ-Baba, two more assigned to a place or person called Dimat-kalbum, and what was probably another group under Ur-Šulpa'e — though that line is now lost except for the number pattern. After this, a series of smaller numeric entries (3, 15, 2, 1, and more) once itemized further groups or totals, but the identifying labels have broken away. The tablet ends with a supervisor's name and a note naming someone as servant or subordinate of an official called Ea-meš (or similar), followed by two more lines too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 male laborers, builders (šitim), men of Niĝ-Baba; 2 male laborers, builders, men of Dimat-kalbum; [n] male laborers, builders, [men of Ur-Šulpa'e]; 3 [...] 15 [...] 2 [...] 1 [...] [...] [...] 1 [...] overseer: [...] servant of [Ea-meš]; [...] [...]”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 49-02-025 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0216
In plain English
This receipt logs small measured amounts of grain — 2 ban2 of something, 4 barig of something else, and 2 ban2 of a third item whose label is broken away — set aside as malt for grinding (the rest of that entry is lost). The goods were checked and verified through an official inspection. The transaction was handled by Iškur-illat, the estate's household administrator, together with Puzur-Ninkar the scribe, at Garšana. It is dated to the month of Šu-eš-ša; the year name is broken away, and the tablet closes with a day number (also broken) and a note marking it as a copy of another document.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“2 ban2 [of ...] 4 barig [of ...] 2 ban2 ME-[...] malt, for grinding [...] Inspection performed. Via Iškur-illat, [the household administrator (šabra)], and Puzur-Ninkar, the scribe. In Garšana. Month: "Šu-eš-ša." [Year: ...] Day [n], copy.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry