Chapter 04 · 2112 – 2004 BCE
Ur III · Neo-Sumerian
A bureaucratic golden age, the Code of Ur-Nammu.
~2050 BCE · Anonymous 313086 — private: anonymous, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Chicago 20060119d
In plain English
A merchant named Ur-silaluh received a payment of 32 gur, 2 barig, and 8 sila of barley (measured by the royal standard) plus 10 shekels of silver, delivered within the city of Ur from a man called Lanimu. The record notes this was payment for goods — apparently garments or cloth. The transaction is dated to the month called "Bricks placed in the mold," in the year Urbilum was destroyed. A second merchant, Ur-sukkal, son of Ur-[...], is listed at the end, likely as a witness to the deal.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“32 gur, 2 barig, 8 sila barley, royal measure, 10 shekels silver, within Ur, from Lanimu, Ur-silaluh, the merchant, received. The purchase price of garments(?). Month: "Bricks placed in the mold" (month name of the Umma calendar), Year: "Urbilum was destroyed." Ur-sukkal, merchant, son of Ur-[...].”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · SM 1899.02.057 — Harvard Museum of the Ancient Near East, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
CM 26, 146
In plain English
This tablet records a shortfall: 14 gur, 2 ban2, and 2 sila3 of barley (measured by the royal standard) that went missing from a shipment loaded onto a boat. The loss is charged to the account of a man called Bazi. Ningirsu-isa has put his seal on the document, taking responsibility to repay the missing grain. The record is dated to the month called 'Mušudu,' in the year king Šu-Suen's forces destroyed the city of Kimaš. At the bottom, the seal itself identifies the sealholder: Ningirsu-isa, son of Adda(?), who worked as a boatman.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“14 gur, 2 ban2, 2 sila3 of barley, royal measure — deficit of barley loaded onto the boat — from Bazi; sealed by Ningirsu-isa; it is to be repaid. Month: 'Mušudu.' Year: Kimaš was destroyed. (Seal legend:) Ningirsu-isa, son of Adda(?), boatman.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 49-02-029 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUNES 49-02-029
In plain English
This is a note from Ur-Suen, son of Ur-Utu, to Ur-Šulpa'e: 'Out of the 2 shekels of silver that Ur-silaluh is holding, give 1 shekel of it to Lu-duga. As for the rest of that silver [text broken here], don't fail to see to it.' Signed, Ur-Suen, son of Ur-Utu.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“To Ur-Šulpa'e speak: Silver, 2 shekels, of Ur-silaluh, which is present in (his) possession — from it, 1 shekel, to Lu-duga, let it be given. Its silver, [...] [...] let him not neglect (it)/let him not disregard it. Ur-Suen, son of Ur-Utu.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 51-04-018 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUNES 51-04-018
In plain English
What survives is a fragmentary list of names, opening with a man named Ibni-Iškur and a stock phrase used at the start of short administrative letters ('tell him...'). The next several lines are too broken to read in full, but they seem to include other people's names — one connected to Gilgamesh, another to the god Erra — followed by a numbered entry for a person called '1 KA-...-um' and another, 'Dingir-sudan.' The tablet ends with a partly broken reference to someone's father, '...son of Bak-...-gi4.' The overall content and purpose of the document cannot be reconstructed from what remains.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1. Ibni-Iškur 2. — u3-na-a-du11 ("speak to him!" / letter-formula: "has been told") 3. [......]-dub-ba (broken; possibly "tablet-" related) 4. [...]-[x]-Gilgamesh (broken; contains the divine/heroic name Gilgamesh) 5. [...]-[x]-Erra (broken; contains the name/element Erra) 6. [......]-x (broken, illegible) 7. x x-za (broken, illegible) 8. 1 KA-x-x-um (a personal name, largely broken) 9. 1 Dingir-sudan (personal name) 10. x-ru-x (broken; "ru" tentatively "given/deposited") 11. son of Bak-x-gi4”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 51-10-056 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUNES 51-10-056
In plain English
A note to Turam-ili: please give 2 gur of barley from the sealed storehouse to Lu-Turam. This was done in the presence of the steward Puzur-x, who opened the storehouse for the purpose. Let their document be sealed to confirm the transaction.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Turam-ili — speak to him! 2 gur barley, from the sealed storehouse (e2-kišib-ba), to Lu-Turam let it be given. Before Puzur-x, the chief steward, the storehouse was opened. Let their sealed document be impressed (sealed).”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 52-04-082 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUNES 52-04-082
In plain English
Tell Šu-damu: regarding the field [the next few lines are too damaged to read, but they concerned a field and some quantity or transaction]. Nothing is left over or set aside [beyond what has already been accounted for]. Hand it over to Zuma the merchant and to Lu-Šalim — make sure it's given to them. And don't let anyone back out of this agreement.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“To Šu-damu — speak! The field, ...... [broken] ...... field ...... [broken] ...... [broken] ...... [broken] There is no remaining ...... that has been set/placed (there). To Zuma, the merchant, (and) Lu-Šalim, let it be given. Let the matter not be reneged upon (let the word not be turned back).”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 52-04-084 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUNES 52-04-084
In plain English
A note to Suen-našir: 'Say to him — two gur and one barig of bitumen have been unloaded from the boat, and two barig (of something) have gone to the storehouse.' Several lines are too damaged to read. Toward the end the text mentions some number of containers (mirza-vessels?) and what may be fir or pine wood, and closes with an instruction to hand something over or deliver it. The middle of the tablet is lost, so the full sequence of instructions cannot be reconstructed.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“To Suen-našir — speak! 2 gur 1 barig of bitumen, removed from the boat, 2 barig(?) ... to the house, [...] ... ... ... [...]-...-... [...] ... ... [...] n mirza-vessels(?) [...] ... fir-wood(?) ... ... hand (it) over! / give (it)!”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · CUNES 48-00-008 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 03, 0062
In plain English
This tablet totals up work crews: 10 men working as builders, 43 men overall, and 49 women. A further small group of 2 and then 3 workers is listed but the text is broken here. Some workers came from a person or place called Abba-ama and were assigned duties, apparently connected to the weaving house and to a workshop of skilled craftsmen — but the details are lost in gaps. Ten more men are listed doing a specific kind of clay- or plaster-related work (again fragmentary). Individual entries follow: a worker named Lugatum was assigned to bake bread; a worker named Šeš-kalla is noted as sick; the crew's foreman is Irib; and finally the builder Mašum is recorded as having gone to (the estate of) Šu-Kabta. In short, this is a routine daily or periodic labor roster tracking who worked where, under whom, and why some men were absent.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Total: 10 male workers, builders (šitim). Total: 43 male workers. Total: 49 (lit. 50 minus 1) female workers. 2 male workers, [...]. 3 [...]. From Abba-ama [...] stationed [...]. The weaving-house [...], the craftsmen's workshop (e2-gaszam) [...]. 10 male workers, im-sumur(-workers) [...]. 1: Lugatum, stationed to bake bread. 1: Šeš-kalla, sick. Foreman: Irib. 1: Mašum, the builder, went to (the place of) Šu-Kabta.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry