Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-056 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 100
In plain English
The first entry records 5 large measures (N14) of barley, assigned to an official account whose signs read BU, PAP and NAM2. This is followed by the group DU SZE3 NI BU and the group carpenter (?), ZI and administrator. The other face gives a larger barley figure: 1 N34, 1 N45, 5 N14 and 4 N01 units. Next comes a separate figure of 6 N19 units. It closes with the same groups again: DU SZE3 NI BU, and the carpenter (?), administrator and ZI.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“5(N14)# (units) of barley: BU~a, PAP~a, NAM2 (official); DU SZE3 NI~a BU~a; NAGAR~a, ZI~a#, SANGA~a# (administrator). 1(N34) 1(N45) 5(N14) 4(N01) (units) of barley; 6(N19); DU SZE3 NI~a BU~a; NAGAR~a, SANGA~a# (administrator), ZI~a.”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-20-013 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 101
In plain English
Grain disbursement record. One line can be read in full: seven large units (7 N14) of barley were issued for consumption. The other entries keep only their figures: 4, 5 and 2 of the same large units, then 4 smaller units (N01), 1 unit of another value (N04), and further down 1 more small unit (N01). The commodities and recipients beside those figures are lost, as are several lines that are entirely broken.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1. [...], [...] 2. 7(N14) (units of grain): barley, consumed (ŠE~a GU7) 3. [...], [...] 4. [...] 4(N14), [...] 5. [...] 5(N14), [...] 6. [...] 2(N14), [...] 7. [...], [...] 8. [...] 4(N01), [...] 9. [...] 1(N04), [...] 10. [...], [...] 11. [...], [...] 12. [...] 1(N01), [...] 13. [...], [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-024 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 107
In plain English
The first entry is lost. Twenty units (2 × N14) are booked to TA-SAL-ḪI. Three N19 units, preceded by a lost amount, go to PAP of Uruk. One N04 plus one N41 unit is recorded for the UKKIN-NA-fish entry. A further two N41 units are again booked to TA-SAL-ḪI. The last entry is broken away.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] : [...] [...] 2(N14) : TA~c SAL ḪI [...] 3(N19) : PAP~a UNUG~a (Uruk) 1(N04) 1(N41) : UKKIN~a NA~a KU6~a (fish) 2(N41) : TA~c SAL ḪI [...] : [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-20-005 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 109
In plain English
The opening entries are lost. One entry records 1 large unit, 10, and 1 smaller unit, allotted from the storehouse. The next records 5 units and 2 smaller units, also from the storehouse. Three further entries are too damaged to read. On the back the scribe gives a total of 1 large unit and 6 units, allotted from the storehouse.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] , [...] X [...] 1(N46)# 1(N14) 1(N57) (units of grain/capacity): storehouse (E2~a), allotted (BA) 5(N19) 2(N57) (units): storehouse (E2~a) [...] , [...] [...] , [...] [...] , [...] 1(N46) 6(N19) (units), allotted (BA): storehouse (E2~a)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-07-003 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 111
In plain English
The first entry records a quantity of barley: four of the large grain measures, two of the basic units, and a few small fractions. The next entry is partly broken and gives one more unit of a different counting system plus a fraction. The following line is lost. Then comes an amount written as two large units and four smaller ones, plus a fraction. The last legible entry is a small fractional amount booked against a commodity written ḪI×N57 and GU, possibly a fibre such as flax. The final line is too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“4(N14) 2(N01) 3(N39a) 1(N24) 1(N30c) (units of) barley; [...] 1(N04) 1(N41) [...]; [...]: [...]; 2(N18) 4(N03) 1(N30c); 1(N39a) 1(N24) 1(N28): ḪI×1(N57) (and) GU; [...]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-06-217 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 112
In plain English
This is a running tally of goods. The first entry records 120 units of something, along with beer and a sign (LAGAB) whose role here is unclear. The next two entries are mostly broken, and only an unidentified sign survives in each. Then come 20 units of barley, followed by an entry written with a different set of number signs (1 N18 and 1 N03) whose item is not preserved. Next are 11 units of an unidentified item, marked with the sign ḪI. The last entries are lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] 2(N34) (= 120) [...]: beer (KAŠ~a), LAGAB~b [...]: X [...] N: X 2(N14) (= 20): barley 1(N18) 1(N03): 1(N14) 1(N01) (= 11): X, ḪI@g~a [...]: [...] : [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-06-212 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 115
In plain English
Barley is issued as rations, one measure each to GIŠxŠU2, IM and NAGA. Another measure goes to a recipient whose name is lost, and two measures go to Uruk. The next entries are broken, though one mentions the administrator. A small amount of 'new' barley is listed under UB, one unit of barley goes to the fishermen, and a quantity is booked to GIŠ3 PA KU3. A few further entries are partly lost, one of them barley under LAGAB. The tablet ends with the grand total of barley consumed: 1(N19) 1(N04) 1(N14) 3(N01) 3(N39a) 1(N24).
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1(N14) (of) barley, [ration(s)]: GIŠxŠU2 1(N14) (of) barley, ration(s): IM 1(N14) (of) barley, ration(s): NAGA 1(N14) (of) barley, ration(s): [...] 2(N14) (of) barley, [ration(s)]: UNUG (Uruk) [...]: [...] the SANGA (administrator) [...]: X 1(N39a) 1(N24): barley, UB, new 1(N01): barley, (for) the fish(ermen) 1(N04): GIŠ3 PA KU3 1(N19) [...]: [...] 1(N01) 1(N39a) 1(N24): LAGAB, barley 1(N19) 1(N04): [...] 1(N19) 1(N04) 1(N14) 3(N01) 3(N39a) 1(N24): barley, consumed”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-029 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 118
In plain English
This fragment is a scrap of an early account. The opening lines are lost. One entry counts 1 unit, and another names something written with the signs ZATU714, ŠA3 and MU, but the rest of that line is gone. Further down, 1 unit is booked against GAR LAGAB, perhaps a food item or a summary entry. Then 2 units are booked against U4 GAR, possibly 'daily rations'. The last surviving entries count 30 and 10 units, but what they counted has broken away.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...]: [...] [...]: [...] 1 (N01): [...] ZATU714, ŠA3, MU [...] [...]: ... [...] [...] 1 (N01): GAR LAGAB 2 (N01): U4 GAR 3 (N14) [= 30 units]: [...] [...] 1 (N14) [= 10 units]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry