Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-02-002 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 119
In plain English
The account lists who gets what. U2-DU6-U4 is down for 4, GAR-U4 (possibly NUN-U4) for 5, U4-DU8-U2 for 2 and U4-DU8 for 1. One entry after that is lost. Next, GAR-U4-U2 is listed for 10, and the SANGA administrator with AB-TUN3 for another 10. Another entry is broken away. The house of AN then receives 2, SZITA 3 and TAK4-KI 1, and this group is marked as beer. A second group follows: AN-E2 receives 1 and TAK4-KI 1, and this group is marked as jars.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“4: U2 DU6 U4 5: GAR U4 [NUN-U4](?) 2: U4 DU8 U2 1: U4 DU8 [...]: [...] 10: GAR U4 U2 10: [the] SANGA, ... AB TUN3 [...]: [...] 2: house of AN (E2 AN) 3: SZITA 1: TAK4 KI (beer) KASZ 1: AN E2 1: TAK4 KI (jar) DUG”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-115 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 123
In plain English
The tablet is a running ledger with entries across many commodity and personnel categories. One large-unit measure goes to an ABGAL — a sage or senior institutional official. A unit of storehouse records follows. Then: one vessel with mixed or processed contents; a large-unit allocation of female precious-metal workers or silver items (the exact number partially damaged); a unit of an unidentified compound commodity; a medium-unit measure of a grain product in the TI category; a large-unit measure of lion goods or a lion designation; and one unit of something now lost. Near the end of the tablet, bigger tallies accumulate — for a processed mixed commodity and for barley — but the leading figures in both cases have broken away, leaving only the trailing digits. The final two lines record further vessels and grain products in quantities that are also lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] | [...] 1(N30~c) | ABGAL — one [large unit]: sage / senior official 1(N24) | DUB~a E2~a — one [unit]: storehouse record(s) [...] 1(N30~c) | [commodity lost] 1(N01) | |DUG~b×HI| — one: mixed-[content] vessel 1(N30~c) | 2(N57)# SAL KU3~a — one [large unit]: [2?] female precious-metal [workers / silver items] 1(N24) | |HI×1(N57)| — one [unit]: [compound commodity, meaning uncertain] 1(N39~a) | TI@t GUG2 — one [medium unit]: TI-type grain product 1(N30~c) | PIRIG~b1 — one [large unit]: lion [product / designation] 1(N30~a) | [...] — one [unit]: [commodity lost] [...] 1(N05) 2(N42~a) 1(N30~a) | HI@g~a — [leading quantity lost] ...+ 1(N05) + 2(N42~a) + 1(N30~a): processed / mixed commodity [...] 3(N01) 4(N39~a) 1(N24) | SZE~a — [leading quantity lost] ...+ 3(N01) + 4(N39~a) + 1(N24): barley [...] | |DUG~b×HI| — [quantity lost]: mixed-[content] vessel [...] | GUG2 — [quantity lost]: grain product”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware) · claude-sonnet-4-6 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-00-016 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 125
In plain English
The first two lines are too damaged to read fully, but both reference storehouses. The clearest entries show: five large mixed-measure storehouses, six units of a measured quantity, one jar of beer, one entry now entirely lost, one item of uncertain category associated with a storage mound, and one item linked to a supervisor in the Tigris region. The final two lines are completely broken. What survives reads like a tally sheet — goods received or assigned at an institutional building — written at the very moment when humanity was first learning to use marks on clay as a substitute for memory.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] — storehouse [...] — [damaged sign]; [compound] storehouse [with large N57 measure] 5 — large [mixed-]measure storehouse 6 — [mixed-]measure [units] 1 — jar of beer 1[?] — [...] 1 — [BULUG3 category] at [the] mound 1 — Tigris [area]; supervisor [...] — [...] [...] — [...]”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware) · claude-sonnet-4-6 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-06-007 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 126
In plain English
This is a running list of grain issues. An entry whose amount is lost goes to Abzu(?). Three measures go to La-Sug. One measure is for gug-cakes, and one is for An(?)-Ku(?). A lost amount goes to Šubur, possibly also for cakes. A small measure goes to Nim, and lost amounts go to Hi and to Abzu(?), followed by a fully broken entry. One measure goes to Du, again for cakes, and one measure to Sal-Šu-Pap. After another broken entry, the account closes with barley for 6 days, and a second note of 6 days.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...]: Abzu(?) 3 (N39a): La-Sug 1 (N28): gug-cake(s) 1 (N28): An(?)-Ku(?) [...]: Šubur, gug-cake(s)(?) 1 (N30a): Nim [...]: Hi(@g) [...]: Abzu(?) [...]: [...] 1 (N28): Du gug-cake(s) ... 1 (N39a): Sal-Šu-Pap [...]: [...] 6 (N08) day(s): barley 6 (N08) day(s)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-058 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 130
In plain English
The opening line is lost. The next entry records 10 units against an item written ḪI×1(N57) with the qualifier NE. Another entry lists a small grain-type quantity made up of several fractional measures, followed by one unit of a ḪI@g item. Then come one small measure (N28) of something called MAR, and a further quantity of one N05 unit and two N42a units. The last line is too damaged to read, and the left side of every entry has broken away.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning destroyed) [...], [...] [...] 10 (N14), ḪI×1(N57) NE [...] 1(N42a) 1(N25) 1(N28c) 1(N30a) (grain-capacity fractions), 1(N57) ḪI@g [...] 1(N28), MAR [...] 1(N05) 2(N42a) [...], [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-113 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 131
In plain English
This ledger lists grain allotments one entry at a time. A unit or official called AB ZATU714 gets the first amount. Smaller portions go to a series of parties labelled ZATU710 and UB-ZI, several of them tied to Uruk, and one goes to KU3-AD. Further allotments go to ŠE-DU-A, to an envoy, to a field account, to DAR-GU, and to one party whose name cannot be read. On the back, the scribe totals everything: 2(N20) 4(N05) 3(N42a) 1(N25) units of grain, booked as consumed (GU7) under the heading MUD NA BU.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1(N05) 1(N42a) (grain): AB ZATU714 1(N01): ZATU710, PAP, UB-ZI 1(N01): SI-TUN3 2(N42a): ZATU710, UB-ZI, KU3-AD 3(N42a): ZATU710, Uruk 3(N42a): ZATU710, UB-ZI, Uruk 3(N42a): UB-ZI, Uruk 1(N05): UB-ZI, ŠE-DU-A 1(N05): UB-ZI, I, the envoy (SUKKAL) 1(N05) 1(N42a) 1(N25): field (GAN2) ISZ 1(N42a): ZATU714 3(N14): (an unread sign) 1(N05): DAR-GU 2(N20) 4(N05) 3(N42a) 1(N25) grain: consumed (GU7), MUD NA BU”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-06-003 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 133
In plain English
The opening entries are badly damaged. One records 4 units of something now lost, and the next lines are tagged with unidentified signs, a storehouse with the label UB, and apparently seed grain. Then come smaller items: 1 unit of an unidentified commodity, 1 small grain measure marked ḪI, and 1 further small grain measure, apparently of barley. The account closes with SUHUR and AB, probably the official or institution in charge.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] 4 (units), [...] [...], ... ... [...], [...] storehouse (E2~a), UB [...], ... seed(-grain)? 1 (unit), ... 1 (N24 grain measure), ḪI 1 (N39~a grain measure), barley? SUHUR, AB (institution)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-06-214 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 135
In plain English
The record opens with an entry of barley, apparently an allotment, whose quantity is lost. Next comes one unit linked to a field and a settlement, followed by three units of another commodity or person category. Two further single-unit entries name the high official called 'EN': the first lists wood, reed, a fish-like item and possibly silver, and the second mentions water and something designated 'small'. The last three entries are too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse [...] barley; BA (allotment?) 1 (unit): field, RU, UR2, settlement (URU) 3 (N57 units): ŠU2, ZAG (boundary/side?) 1 (unit): EN (lord/official), DU, wood/tree (GIŠ), SUHUR, reed (GI), GIŠ3, PA, silver/precious metal (KU3), water (A), X 1 (unit): EN (lord/official), water (A), DU, small (TUR), X [...] [...] [...] [...] [...] [...] [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · experimental confidence
Read the full tablet entry