Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-20-014 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 086
In plain English
The first entry records 3 units and 2 smaller units for the person or office written GAL ME ŠEŠ. The second records 4 units and 3 smaller units for SAL ŠA GU. The third records 12 units and 1 smaller unit, but the name that went with it is lost. Three further entries are too damaged to read. The last entry has lost its number and keeps only the words ŠU TUR at its end.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 3(N01) 2(N59): GAL~a ME~a ŠEŠ~a 4(N01) 3(N59): SAL ŠA GU~a [1]0(N14) 2(N01) 1(N59): [......] [......]: [......] [......]: [......] [......]: [......] [......]: ŠU TUR”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-08-074 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 088
In plain English
The account lists six oxen and an unknown number of horns(?). It also records an unknown amount of a commodity written SZUM and an entry of copper together with two signs we cannot interpret. The last entry is 50 units of barley, followed by a long string of signs (AN, KID, BA, TAK4, ERIM, GISZ, NIM, EN, HI, SZITA, DU, KU3, IB, SUHUR). These probably name the people, offices or institution responsible for the goods or receiving them. The numbers that went with the horns and the SZUM entry are lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“6(N01) oxen [...] SI (horns?) [...] SZUM copper, X, ZATU777 5(N14) (i.e. 50 units of) barley: AN KID BA TAK4 ERIM GISZ NIM EN HI SZITA DU KU3 IB SUHUR”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-06-201 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 090
In plain English
The account opens with grain: two N14 units go to the office written AN NUNUZ ZATU788, and three N01 units go to the TA–Uruk–ḪI unit. Three N04 units of beer are booked under AB, and one N41 plus one N28 unit are marked for what may be 'day 2'. After a sign we cannot read, a second round follows. Two N19 units go to AN NUNUZ ZATU788, three N04 units to TA–Uruk–ḪI, and two N41 units under AB for what may be 'day 1'. A final single N04 unit is recorded as consumed.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 2 (N14 units): grain; AN NUNUZ ZATU788. 3 (N01 units): grain; TA UNUG (Uruk) ḪI. 3 (N04 units): AB KAŠ (beer). 1 (N41 unit) 1 (N28 unit): U4×2 (day 2?). (entry) X. 2 (N19 units): AN NUNUZ ZATU788. [3] (N04 units): TA UNUG (Uruk) ḪI. 2 (N41 units): U4×1 (day 1?); AB. 1 (N04 unit): consumed.”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-007 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 092
In plain English
The first entry is broken, and only a sign read GIŠ3 survives with it. Next comes a grain quantity of 1 large unit, 3 middle units and 1 small unit, recorded against a group of signs: LAGAB.TE, barley, SI, DU and SI4. These probably name a person, an office or a purpose for the grain. A further 2 middle units and 2 small units of barley follow. Another entry records 1 large unit and 5 smaller marks, with no description surviving beside it. The last case is too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1. [...]: GIŠ3~a 2. 1(N19) 3(N14) 1(N01) (grain): LAGAB~b.TE, barley, SI, DU, SI4~f 3. 2(N14) 2(N01) (grain): barley 4. 1(N19) 5(N04): (no sign preserved) 5. [...]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-009 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 093
In plain English
A record of barley: the first entry tallies a substantial quantity — several large-capacity measures plus smaller fractions — though part of the count is missing where the tablet is broken. A second numerical entry follows without a commodity label, likely a subdivision or related lot. The transaction is characterized as a purchase or exchange, and is connected to a material or category called NAGA (possibly natron or a specific goods class). The responsible institutional authority is the chief temple administrator — the great sanga — along with the lord (en), with a location or place marker and a reed sign closing the record. What comes after the break in line one is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[Quantity: 6(N14) (break) 2(N01) 2(N39~a) 1(N24) 1(N30~a)] — barley [Quantity: 4(N19) 4(N41) 1(N24~b)] — purchase/exchange; distribution; NAGA — administrator; administrator; great — lord; place; reed”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware) · claude-sonnet-4-6 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-002 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 095
In plain English
The opening entries are badly broken. One mentions a goat and another mentions beer, possibly drawn from a store or heap, but the details and amounts are lost. Next comes a large quantity of barley, written in the cereal-measure numbers as 1(N45) 5(N14) 3(N01) together with the fractional units 3(N39a), 1(N24), 1(N29a) and 1(N30c). A second grain product follows, counted with the marked cereal numbers 7(N19) 5(N04) 1(N29b). The closing line notes that all of this was consumed, issued as food and drink.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...], goat [...] [...], DU6 (heap?), beer 1(N45) 5(N14) 3(N01) 3(N39a) 1(N24) 1(N29a) 1(N30c) (units of) barley 7(N19) 5(N04) 1(N29b) (units of a processed grain product) consumed (rations)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-032 + CUNES 51-10-034 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 097
In plain English
The tablet is a list of allotments, each a quantity followed by a short label. One unit goes to something marked NE. Two plus one smaller grain measures are booked against a cattle-pen (ME). The next entry is broken. Single grain measures are recorded for an item marked ZATU729, perhaps, and for an entry naming a man, a mother and a sheep. Further entries, with their amounts lost, concern a lord or official (EN) and something involving a 'hand' and UR5. Three measures are booked against TAR. The last entry, of at least one further unit, pairs a plant sign with a fish.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1 (unit, N01): [...] NE 2 (N42a) 1 (N25): cattle-pen (TUR3), ME [...]: ... [...] 1 (N42a): ZATU729(?) 1 (N42a): man (LU2), mother (AMA), sheep (UDU) [...]: [...] EN (lord/official) [...]: ... hand (ŠU), UR5 3 (N41): TAR [...] 1(?) (N20): plant/grass (U2), fish (KU6)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-051 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 099
In plain English
Barley allocations: 4 units of barley tied to a two-day (or two-period) notation, then 1 large measure with the mark RU, another 1 measure, and 2 measures set aside as seed. Next come a large batch of 1 N45 plus 5 measures and 1 measure plus 3 units for the household, followed again by the mark RU. The rest of the list assigns barley by recipient or office. A NAR (perhaps a musician) receives 1 N45 plus 1 measure. Further entries of 3, 2, 1 plus 4, 4, and 3 plus 2 measures go to designated persons or offices, including the lord of a settlement and an official. The last entry is broken: its amount is lost, and only part of a place or institution name survives.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 4 (N01) barley — U4×2(N57) (a time notation: 'day/period ×2') 1 (N14) barley — RU 1 (N14) barley 2 (N14) barley — seed (NUMUN), BU~a 1 (N45) 5 (N14) barley 1 (N14) 3 (N01) barley — the house/household (E2~a) RU 1 (N45) 1 (N14) — A NAR (official or office: 'musician'?) 3 (N14) — ZATU773~a GIR3@g~b 2 (N14) — DU 1 (N14) 4 (N01) — TUR GIŠ3~b 4 (N14) — |URU~a1×KI| EN~a (the en of ...) 3 (N14) 2 (N01) — PAP~a BU~a, [NAM2] (official), barley [...] — ... SAR~a NIR~b URU~a1”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry