Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-00-007 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 017
In plain English
A short tally, with each line giving a count and what it refers to. The first entry is lost. Next come 2 units for PAP-DAR and 2 for NAGA (the rest of that line is broken), then a damaged entry for SAL, possibly a female worker, and another lost line. The EN, the 'lord' or chief official, is credited with 2 units plus 1 unit counted in a different numerical sign, and NU11-AN receives 1. Two more lines are illegible. The list ends with 4 units of LAL2 and 1 unit of UR.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...]: [...] 2 (units): PAP~a DAR~b 2 (units): NAGA~a [...] [...]: SAL (female worker?) [...]: [...] 2 (units): EN~a (the en, 'lord'/high official), 1 (N04-unit) 1 (unit): NU11 AN [...]: [...] [...]: [...] 4 (units): LAL2~a 1 (unit): UR~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-06-002 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 019
In plain English
This is a roster of people, one per line. The first is AN-NU11, then someone whose name ends in MU, then entries written as PAP-ME, BU-BU-NA-SZA-ME, LAGAB-BU, AL and ZATU725. Several of the next names are partly or wholly lost. The list continues with a name ending in SZITA, a woman (SAL) GA2-GI, an entry beginning with SANGA, and KAK-GISZ, followed by one entry that is entirely broken. On the back, the total is given as 14 people, labelled GI E2 NU11 NUN DU A, probably the name of the unit or household to which they belonged.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1 (person): AN NU11 [1] (person): ... MU 1 (person): ... PAP~a ME~a 1 (person): |(BU~a&BU~a).NA2~a| SZA ME~a 1 (person): LAGAB~b ... BU~a 1 (person): AL 1 (person): ZATU725 [1] (person): [...] 1 (person): [...] SZITA~a1 1 (person): [...] 1 (person): SAL GA2~a1 GI 1 (person): SANGA~a [...] 1 (person): KAK~a GISZ [...]: [...] (Total:) 14: GI E2 NU11@t NUN~a DU A”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-099 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 021
In plain English
This is a list of counts, one per box. It begins with 1 unit for ADAB, 3 for an unidentified item, 1 for ERIN KAB and 1 for a field marked ISZ. Next come 20 sheep, then 3 entries for plough and EN, 1 for SUG5 MAR ZATU752, 1 for HI and EN, and 1 for plough and field. The last entries are 20 for AN TE and 1 for a woman marked DARA4. On the back, a single large sign (ZATU851) seems to label or close the whole account. Most of these signs have no confirmed meaning, so what was being counted remains unclear.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1(N22): ADAB 3(N01): X (an unidentified sign) 1(N01): ERIN KAB 1(N01): field (GAN2) ISZ~b 2(N14) (= 20): sheep (UDU~a) 3(N01): plow (APIN~a), EN~a 1(N01): SUG5 MAR~a ZATU752 1(N01): HI, EN~a 1(N01): plow (APIN~a), field (GAN2) 2(N14) (= 20): AN TE 1(N01): woman (SAL), DARA4~a1 ZATU851”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-18-002 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 025
In plain English
The opening of the account is lost. The first surviving entry mentions a field together with the EN, the city's chief official, and a string of further sign-words whose exact meaning is unclear. The next entry records 4 units of ten for something tied to the EN and again to a field. Then comes the largest figure on the tablet: 2 large units and 3 tens of a commodity measured in a vessel or jar. The following lines are mostly worn away. Only two further counts survive, each of 2 tens. The last entry pairs that 2 tens with a group of signs that probably include a woman or female worker (SAL) and NUNUZ, but its meaning cannot be recovered.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning destroyed) 1. [...]; field (GAN2), EN, ŠA3, [AN?], AMA, MEN, RU, A 2. [...] 4(N14); [...] EN, X, ŠU, field (GAN2) 3. 2(N50) 3(N14): |SILA3×DUG| (vessel/commodity) 4. [...]; [...] 5. [...]; [...] 6. [...] 2(N14); [...] 7. [...]; [...] 8. [...] 2(N14); [...] ZATU788, SAL, [AN], NUNUZ”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 52-20-004 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 026
In plain English
The first entries are broken, and only their signs survive: something connected with the courtyard, then something with a storehouse-type sign, then a lost item, then an entry of 3 (N57) with the sign AN. The readable entries follow. There are 10 for the pen or fold, with a further 5 (N57), and 10 for GA~a with an unclear sign. Then come 50 for DA~a GUL and 20 for KALAM~g. What exactly was counted is not stated in any surviving entry.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] , [...] [...] , (the) courtyard (KISAL~b1) [...] , |GA2~a1×ḪI| [...] , [...] [...] , 3 (N57) AN 1(N14) (= 10) , (the) fold/pen (TUR3~a) 5 (N57) 1(N14) (= 10) , GA~a [x] 5(N14) (= 50) , DA~a GUL 2(N14) (= 20) , KALAM~g”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-08-083 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 030
In plain English
The herd count lists 9 adult females and 12 adult males. It also lists 1 two-year-old female, 2 two-year-old males and 2 young one-year-old males. The account is filed under NAGA~a, a responsible official or unit whose role is not certain. On the back, the tally is given as 24, followed by the signs PAP, EN, SANGA and DUB, which probably identify the officials and the account tablet. A final entry records 2 units of something called RAD~a.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“9 females 12 males 1 female, 2-year-old 2 males, 2-year-old 2 young males, 1-year-old NAGA~a 24: total (KISZ); PAP~a, EN~a, SANGA~a, tablet (DUB~a) 2 (N02 units): RAD~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-102 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 034
In plain English
The list begins with three people under the heading DU. It then goes through a series of single entries, one each for figures designated UMUN2, UR2 A, HAL ZATU694~c, SAR~d A and ALAN~a ZATU694~c. One entry is too damaged to read. After it come X ŠU, an EN connected with beer (KAŠ), and a SANGA HI. One further entry uses a sign that cannot be identified. Everything is added up at the end: 13 in all, under the label KIŠ UB.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 (units): DU 1: X (unidentified sign) 1: UMUN2 1: UR2 A 1: HAL ZATU694~c 1: SAR~d A 1: ALAN~a ZATU694~c [1]: [...] 1: X ŠU 1: EN KAŠ 1: SANGA HI 13 (total): KIŠ UB”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-114 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 036
In plain English
This tablet records several small batches of goods and animals: 2 portions marked as disbursements, 1 tablet entry, then a break. Further entries list 5 females (women or female animals), 1 inner/heart category, then groups of 2 and 2 sun/day-qualified calves, and 5 calves in another sun-qualified category. A larger entry — 28 in total — concerns a KIŠ-group of conscript workers or soldiers (ERIN). Two entries of 2 each record salt. A further 26 items are listed as fodder/herbage for calves. Another 2 portions of salt follow. Then 25 females, 1 highland/foreign item, and finally a round number of 10 sheep. The middle section of the tablet is too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“2, BAR 1, tablet (DUB~b) [...], [...] 5, female (SAL) 1, heart/inner (ŠA3~a2) [2], |U4 × 3(N57)| 2, |U4 × 2(N57)| 5 AMAR, |U4 × 1(N57)| 1(N14) 8, KIŠ NAM2 ERIN 2, salt (MUN~a1) 1(N14) 6, |DU8~c × AMAR| grass/herbage (U2~a) 2, salt (MUN~a1) 1(N14) 5, female (SAL) 1, highland/foreign (KUR~a) 1(N14), sheep (UDU~a)”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware) · claude-sonnet-4-6 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry