Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · MS 2863/22 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
CDLI Lexical 000023, ex. 098
In plain English
What survives is a short run from a list of vessel names, each entry marked with the number one. The first entry is lost. Next come three kinds of jar, each written as a jar sign with another sign drawn inside it: one marked with an unidentified sign, one probably marked with the sign NAGA, and another marked with an unidentified sign. The following entry is lost, and the next two begin with a sign that may be GAN before breaking off. A final entry is also lost, and the rest of the list is broken.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning destroyed) [1] [......] [1] DUG~b-vessel [with] an (unidentified) inscribed sign [1] DUG~b-vessel with NAGA~a inscribed(?) 1 DUG~b-vessel with an (unidentified) inscribed sign 1 [......] 1 GAN~c(?) [......] 1 GAN~c(?) [......] [N] [......] (rest destroyed)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2900/06 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
CDLI Lexical 000026, ex. 055
In plain English
This is a scribe's practice list. Each entry begins with a tally mark for 'one' and then gives a written sign. The first entry is lost. The next ones read URI, then what is probably a form of MUD3, then an elaborated (gunû) form of MUD3, then a variant of MIR. Two more entries follow, but their signs have broken away. At the end comes a larger number written 1(N34) 2(N14), and whatever followed it is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse(?) 1 [...] 1 URI 1 MUD3~a(?) 1 MUD3@g (gunû form of MUD3) 1 MIR~b 1 [...] 1 [...] Reverse(?) 1(N34) 2(N14) [...]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/06 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
CDLI Lexical 000026, ex. 056
In plain English
This is a numbered vocabulary list. It begins with an unclear entry, then a churn. Five entries follow whose words are lost. Next come two entries for an item written ŠU2 GU, then a large TUN3 implement and two further kinds of TUN3 implement, distinguished by number-like marks (2(N57) and possibly 1(N57)) plus ŠU. The next entry may begin with AL, and the following one is lost. The last line carries the numeral 1(N34) 4(N01) before a break.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1, X 1, SZAKIR (churn) 1, [...] 1, [...] 1, [...] 1, [...] 1, [...] 1, ŠU2 GU 1, ŠU2 GU [...] 1, large TUN3-implement(?) 1, 2(N57) ŠU TUN3-implement(?) 1, 1(N57)? ŠU TUN3-implement(?) 1, AL(?) [...] 1, [...] 1(N34) 4(N01), [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2900/09 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
CDLI Lexical 000030, ex. 057
In plain English
The tablet lists goods one entry at a time, each with a number. The first item is mostly lost; only part of a sign, perhaps AD, survives. It is followed by 5 of what may be malt and 5 of gazi-spice. The next entry is broken. Then come 10 of SUHUR, possibly a kind of fish, and 10 of an item written KAR2~b, whose meaning is unknown. Four more entries counted as 1 each follow, but their names are lost apart from a trace in one of them. A last entry with a lost number closes the surviving list.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1 (unit), [...] ... AD(?) 5 (units), malt(?) 5 (units), gazi-spice 1 (unit), [...] 1 (ten), SUHUR (fish?) 1 (ten), KAR2~b 1 (unit), [...] 1 (unit), [...] 1 (unit), ... [...] 1 (unit), [...] [n], [...] ...”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 3035 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
CDLJ 2009/4 §4
In plain English
The account opens with a single entry for MUN~a1, whose meaning is unclear. Then come the categories. There are 43 head marked AL and 11 young of the EN~a class. Among the other young stock, 5 are one year old, 10 are two years old and 16 are three years old. The grand total comes to 85. It is followed by a line of signs, MUN~a1, SU~a, PAP~a, BAD~a, SI, AN, AD~a and GIR~a, which probably name the people or office accountable for the herd. We cannot fully interpret these signs today.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Reverse? see reasoning) 1. 1 MUN~a1 2. 43: AL 3. 11: young (TUR) EN~a 4. 5: young, 1 year (old?) 5. 10: young, 2 years (old?) 6. 16: young, 3 years (old?) 7. (Total) 85: 1, 2, MUN~a1, SU~a, PAP~a, 1(N58).BAD~a, SI, AN, AD~a, GIR~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CMAA 020-C0003 — California Museum of Ancient Art, Los Angeles, California, USA
CMAA 020-C0003
In plain English
The first entry is broken: it records one of something for an unidentified party. The next three entries each record one unit. The first goes to a party written MASZ2–ZATU628–DIM–SAL. The second goes to one written NUN–DIM. The third goes to one written NUN–GAR–SAG–ZATU694. These are probably names or titles that cannot yet be read out. After that the list is damaged: one entry is entirely lost, and the last surviving line keeps only the number 6.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] 1 [...], [...] X X 1: MASZ2 ZATU628~a DIM~a SAL 1: NUN~b DIM~a 1: NUN~b GAR SAG ZATU694~c [...]: [...] [...] 6 [...]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-108 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 015
In plain English
This is a ledger. The first entry is 5 large units and 4 tens for the workers (?) of the 'gate', and the second is 2 tens and 2 units in the 'gate's' hand. Two large units go to a delivery (?) entry, and three to an entry naming a settlement (?) and the 'gate'. Two further entries of 2 and 3 large units also belong to the 'gate', but their first signs are lost. Next come one very large unit and one ten under a sign group involving precious metal (?), then one large unit and 2 tens for another 'gate' entry. On the back, under the heading 'gate', the account closes with a large total: 1 (N48), 9 (N34), 2 (N14), 2 (N01), described as an allotment of oil (?) for the 'gate'.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“5 (N34) 4 (N14): ERIM (workers?), KA2 (gate?) 2 (N14) 2 (N01): KA2 (gate?), ŠU (hand) 2 (N34): DU (delivery?), |ZATU737×BUR~a| 3 (N34): URU~a1 (settlement?), ZATU659, KA2 (gate?) 2 (N34): [...] KA2 (gate?) 3 (N34): [...] KA2 (gate?) 1 (N51) 1 (N14): |6(N57).KU3~a| 1 (N34) 2 (N14): GIŠ3~a, KA2 (gate?) KA2 (gate?) 1 (N48) 9 (N34) 2 (N14) 2 (N01): BA (allotment?), NI~a (oil?), KA2 (gate?)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · experimental confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-015 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 016
In plain English
This is an itemized account. One entry for UR5 is recorded in units 1(N34) and 1(N58). It is followed by 1 unit of URI and 3 units of date-palm wood (GIŠ SI). Three more entries are counted, but their quantities are lost: LA2 SUG5, a plant item, and a commodity of type ZATU759. Next come 1 unit of linen (NA2), 1 unit of ŠU2 SAL BAR, and 1(N34) 1(N58) 3(N57) units of the NAM plant. Another entry lists an unreadable quantity with 3 units of plants, and a last item, ZATU802, counts 1 unit. The account closes with what appear to be the responsible parties: ŠU ŠU of the plough office, and BU PAP NAM2 IM DUR2 ŠAGAN.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1(N34) 1(N58) (units of): UR5~a 1(N57): URI 3(N57): GIŠIMMAR~b1 (date palm), GIŠ (wood), SI [...]: LA2 SUG5 [...]: U2~a (plant) [...]: ZATU759 1(N57): GADA~a (flax/linen) NA2~a 1(N57): ŠU2 SAL BAR 1(N34) 1(N58) 3(N57): U2~a (plant) NAM~a [x]: 3(N57) U2~a (plant) 1(N57): ZATU802~b ŠU ŠU APIN~a (plough) BU~a PAP~a NAM2 IM~a DUR2 ŠAGAN”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry