Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · MS 2863/23 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/23
In plain English
This is a damaged account in which each entry gives a number and a short label. The first legible entry names an IB and an official or office written URI3. Next come 3 units of something now lost, and then an entry with a separate measure marked BA and SIG. Two units follow, then one unit linked to a NUN, possibly a chief or a high-ranking institution. Another entry ends in DA. One unit is recorded for a plant product together with eggs, NUNUZ. A NAM2 and KAB entry has no surviving number. The remaining lines mention IB again, possibly oil (NI) with MA, and possibly a house or storehouse (GA2). The numbers in these last entries are broken away.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(No obverse/reverse division is marked in the transliteration; the 13 entries are given in source order. Proto-cuneiform signs are rendered by sign name, with tentative glosses in parentheses only where the corpus supports them.) 1. [...] — [...] IB, URI3 (a title or office?) 2. 3 (units) — [...] [...] 3. [...] — [...] 1(N57) BA [...] SIG 4. 2 (units) — [...] 5. 1 (unit) [...] — NUN (chief?) [...] 6. [...] — [...] DA 7. 1 (unit) — U2 (plant) NUNUZ (egg) 8. (no numeral) — NAM2 KAB 9. [...] — [...] IB 10. [...] — [...] [...] 11. [...] — [...] [...] NI (oil/fat?) MA 12. [...] — [...] A? GA2 (house/storehouse?)? [...] 13. [...] — [...] (rest of the text is not given in the transliteration)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/27 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/27
In plain English
This is an inventory list, and much of it is damaged. The first entry has one unit of something whose name is lost. Next comes one unit recorded under 'ŠUBUR RAD'. Seven units follow, apparently connected with a purchase or exchange. One unit is entered under 'house' (the storehouse or household) with the sign KI. Then come several more entries of two units each and one entry of one unit, but what was counted in them is broken away. The last readable line mentions a hoe or similar implement (AL) and two measures of what may be salt. The remainder of that line is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1. [...] 1 (unit) [...]: an unread sign [...] 2. 1 (unit): ŠUBUR RAD~a 3. 7 (units): ŠAM2(?) ('purchase / exchange') 4. 1 (unit): E2~b ('house / storehouse') KI 5. [...] 2 (units): [...] 6. 2 (units): [...] 7. 2 (units): an unread sign [...] 8. 1 (unit) [...]: [...] 9. [...]: [...] AL, 2(N57) salt [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/28 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/28
In plain English
The first entry is broken away. Two units go to PA~a UR3~b2. The next entry is lost, and then one unit goes to PAP~a SU~a. Seven are recorded for BA, six for GI, and probably five for KALAM. The last line gives a figure of 18, apparently the sum of the last three entries, followed by a damaged note that mentions DU and TE. The reverse of the tablet is also written, mostly with columns of number marks, but no reading of it was supplied.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. [...] , [...] 2. 2 (N57 units): PA~a UR3~b2 3. [...] , [...] 4. 1 (N57 unit): PAP~a SU~a 5. 7: BA 6. 6: GI 7. [5]: [KALAM~b] 8. 18 (1 ten, 8 ones; the 8 partly damaged): [...] DU TE [...] (The supplied transliteration ends here. The reverse and edges are inscribed in the photograph but were not transliterated; see reasoning.)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2868 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2868
In plain English
This is an account in several entries. Eight units are booked under NUNUZ, a heading paired with a grain-related category, and another eight under a 'great' GA category. Three units go to an entry involving NAM2, PA and RAD, though the end of that line is broken. Two units are entered under DI-RAD and one under GIR3. Forty units of NUNUZ are listed together with three units of an EN2-E2 item, and one single unit is recorded under EŠDA. The reverse totals the NUNUZ (NE) items. It closes with the name or title of the responsible office: the SANGA, with TE and RAD.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. 8 (N34): NUNUZ~a1, ŠE~a.NAM2 2. 8 (N34): GA~a GAL~a (signs damaged) 3. 3 (N34): NAM2 PA~a RAD~a X [...] 4. 2 (N34): DI RAD~a 5. 1 (N34): GIR3~c 6. 4 (N14): NUNUZ~a1; 3 (N57): EN2.E2~b 7. 1 (N01): EŠDA Reverse (total) 1. 2 (N48) 2 (N34) 4 (N14): NUNUZ~a1 NE~a 2. (Responsible official / account-holder:) SANGA~a TE RAD~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2869/01 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2869/01
In plain English
The tablet is a short tally. The first entry counts one unit for a heading that combines the signs for a lion(?), sheep, a house and PAP SU, probably a person or office. The next two entries are lost. Then come one for PAP SU, one for a worker, and a further PAP SU entry with no number. After another lost entry, the list counts four for NE KI, seven for BU KI and six for TUR NI. A broken entry that may mention barley follows, and the last entry is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Line numbers follow the order of entries in the supplied transliteration; the source gives no obverse/reverse division.) 1. 1 (unit): PIRIG~b, sheep, house (E2), PAP SU[~a] 2. [......]: [......] 3. [......]: [......] 4. 1 (unit): PAP SU 5. 1 (unit): ERIM (worker/dependent) 6. (no numeral): PAP SU 7. [......]: [......] 8. 4 (units): NE KI 9. [7] (units): BU KI 10. [6] (units): TUR NI 11. [......]: [......] barley(?) 12. [......]: [......]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2869/03 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2869/03
In plain English
The first box mentions a storehouse or container entry, together with signs that may refer to grain and plant material or fodder. The next entries each record one unit. The first goes to a group labelled AN ERIM PIRIG and the second to a group labelled with the fish sign, ERIM and MAŠ. A further entry is assigned to ERIM PIRIG, but its number is lost. Two more lines are too damaged to read. A final line, probably on the reverse, preserves only MAŠ and KI, perhaps a place or summary designation, before it breaks off.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. [...] GA2~a ŠE3 U2~b (a storehouse/basket entry with ŠE3 and U2~b, perhaps plant material or fodder) 2. [...] 1 (unit): AN ERIM~a PIRIG~b1 3. [...] 1 (unit): KU6~a ERIM~a MAŠ 4. [...] ERIM~a PIRIG~b1 5. [...] [...] 6. [...] [...] Reverse (?) 7. MAŠ KI [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2869/04 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2869/04
In plain English
This is a list of counted items, and most of what is being counted is now lost. The first entry records nine units of something connected with 'RU'. The next records three units against an entry written MAR, DA, AN, possibly a name or a commodity with a qualifier. Another three units follow, but the signs naming them are illegible. Next come two units, then one, both with their descriptions broken away. A sixth entry carries a different unit of measure, one N57, alongside the sign BA. A last line keeps only one unreadable sign. The rest of the tablet is broken off.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning destroyed?) 1. 9 (N01 units) [...]: RU 2. 3 (N01 units): MAR~a DA~a AN 3. 3 (N01 units) [...]: X X [...] 4. [...] 2 (N01 units): X [...] 5. 1 (N01 unit) [...]: [...] 6. [...]: [...] 1 (N57 unit) BA [...] 7. : X [...] (rest destroyed)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2869/05 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2869/05
In plain English
The top of the list is lost: seven entries survive only as traces, one of which may contain the sign SA. Then the list becomes readable. Three units go to an entry written NA-RU-NAR, which may name a musician. One unit each goes to an entry written ZATU823, to one involving the fish sign (NI-KU6-NA), and to one beginning with MAR whose remainder is broken. After another lost entry, the list mentions a ram and an entry marked NUN. It ends with one young goat.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Line numbers are supplied for reference; the edition gives none. Each entry is a numeral case followed by a sign case.) 1. [...] [...] 2. [...] [...] ... 3. [...] [...] ... 4. [...] [...] SA? 5. [...] [...] ... 6. [...] [...] 7. [...] [...] 8. 3: NA RU NAR (musician?) 9. 1: ZATU823 10. 1: NI KU6 (fish) NA 11. 1: MAR ... [...] 12. [...] [...] 13. [...] ram 14. [...] NUN 15. [...] 1: kid (MAŠ2)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry