Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · MS 2863/04 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/04
In plain English
This is a list of entries, each with a number and a short description, and most of it is lost. One entry names a group of signs, perhaps a person called Šubur together with the title EN ('lord' or institutional head), followed by further signs whose meaning is unclear. Another entry carries the signs RU and KI. Another refers to a settlement (URU) and has no number beside it. Near the end the figure 17 survives, but whatever it counted is broken away. The rest of the record cannot be read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning of each case broken; numbers stand to the left of the comma and the sign group to the right, following the edition's format) 1. [number lost] — [...] X 2. [number lost] — [...] X, ŠUBUR, EN, ZATU624~b(?), NU 3. [number lost] — RU, KI 4. [number lost] — [...] 5. (no number written) — URU (settlement) 6. [number lost] — [...] 7. 17 (1 ten + 7 units, discrete-count system) [...] — X [...] 8. [number lost] — [...] (rest destroyed)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/05 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/05
In plain English
The opening entry is lost. Next comes a large count of workers associated with the highlands, followed by a further item that breaks off. Another entry gives 45 of something whose description is lost. After another broken entry, the tablet lists a count of sheep, written as three units of sixty plus five, which would be 185 if read in the usual counting system. The last entry is broken away.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. [...] : [...] 2. 1(N50)# 5(N14)# : workers (ERIM), highland (KUR), U2 [...] 3. 4(N14) 5(N01) [= 45] : [...] 4. [...] : [...] 5. 3(N34)# 5(N01)# : sheep (UDU) 6. [...] : [...] (The other face is uninscribed; no further text is given in the transliteration.)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/07 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/07
In plain English
This is a list of entries, each with a count. The first records 41 units next to signs for barley (?), SAG and RAD. The next entry is lost. Another records 90 for an item called KITI, linked to a storehouse sign. A further entry records 62 for an item marked with a building sign, ZATU795 and LAM. A damaged entry gives 11 plus two small fractional marks, but what it counted is lost. The last surviving entry is too broken to read, and the rest of the tablet is gone.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. 41 (4 tens, 1 unit) — barley (?), SAG RAD~a 2. [...] — [...] 3. 90 (9 tens) — |3(N57).E2~b| KITI 4. 62 (6 tens, 2 units) — |E2~a×3(N58)| ZATU795 LAM~b 5. [...] 1 ten, 1 unit, 1(N39~a), 1(N24) — [...] X 6. [...] — [...] X (rest destroyed)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/08 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/08
In plain English
The front of the tablet lists allocations in separate boxes. The first entry is 30, recorded under SU and PAP. Two entries of 4 follow, and their names are mostly unreadable. Next come four entries of 1 each: one under ŠA, one under DI, and two whose labels are lost. At least one further entry is completely broken. The back records the total, 92 head of a category of sheep or small livestock (UDUxTAR), followed by the sign TAK4 and a damaged remainder.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. 30 (units): SU~a PAP~a 2. 4 [...]: [...] [...] 3. 4: [...] [...] 4. 1: SZA 5. 1: DI 6. 1: [...] 7. 1 [...]: [...] 8. [...]: [...] Reverse 1. 92 (1 sixty, 3 tens, 2 units) in total: UDUxTAR (sheep/small-cattle category) TAK4~a [...] [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/10 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/10
In plain English
The opening entries are broken. After them the tally runs: 1 animal of a type called UTUA, 17 listed under the heading NUN, 7 rams, and 9 young goats. Next comes a line with no number, ŠE.NAM2, which may name a person, an office or a sub-heading. Then come 3 sheep and an empty space. A further entry gives 51 units against a broken label that ends with LAGAB and DUB, perhaps a total or a register entry. One more line is too damaged to read, and the account closes with 3 under BAR.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning broken) 1. [...] [...] 2. [...] 1 UTUA~a (an animal category, possibly 'ram') 3. 17 NUN~b 4. 7 rams (UDUNITA~a) 5. 9 kids (MASZ2) 6. (no numeral) ŠE~a.NAM2 7. 3 sheep (UDU~a) 8. (blank case) 9. 51 [...] LAGAB~a DUB~a 10. [...] [...] X 11. 3 BAR”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/14 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/14
In plain English
This is a list of items and counts, but most of it is damaged. One unit of what may be oil, marked GISZ3. One unit of beer, labelled ZATU694. Another entry, its number lost, also involves beer. Two units go with the signs KUR and U2, followed by copper written twice. Then come two more units of something unreadable. After another lost entry and a single unit of something now gone, there are three units listed under the sign that later means 'workers', with PIRIG. The last surviving entries are very fragmentary: one mentions KA, and the final one gives three units of a special counting sign beside the compound EN2.E2. The rest of the tablet is broken off.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(The source gives no obverse/reverse division; its line order is kept and numbered here for reference.) 1. [...] , [...] 2. 1 (unit): NI~a (oil/fat?) GISZ3~b 3. 1 (unit): ZATU694~c, beer 4. [...] , [...] beer, X 5. 2 (units): KUR~a U2~b, copper, copper 6. 2 (units): X [...] 7. [...] , [...] 8. 1 (unit) [...] , [...] 9. 3 (units): ERIM~a (workers?) PIRIG~b1? 10. 1 (unit) [...] , X [...] 11. [...] , [...] KA~a? 12. [...] , [...] 3 (N57)? EN2.E2~b (Here the transliteration ends; the rest is broken.)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/17 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/17
In plain English
Flock count: 2 ewes, 22 she-goats, 1 sheep of the UTUA type, 6 animals of the NUN category, 1 ram and 1 billy-goat. The opening entry is lost. Total: 33 head of sheep and goats. The closing note, which seems to name the person or office responsible (it mentions 'hand', 'ox' and other signs), is partly broken and cannot be fully understood.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse col. i (entries) 1. [...] , [...] 2. 2 ewes (U8) 3. 22 she-goats (UD5~a) 4. 1 UTUA~a (sheep) 5. 6 NUN~b (animals) 6. 1 ram (UDUNITA~a) 7. 1 he-goat (MASZ2) col. ii (summary) 8. [33] (total): small livestock (UDU~a) 9. [...] , ŠU GU4 10. , KU~b1 MUNSZUB~b GU4 KI [...] Reverse (apparently uninscribed; see reasoning)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2863/21 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2863/21
In plain English
This is a fragment of an inventory list. The first lines are lost. One entry mentions something marked SI, possibly horn, together with a man. One unit is recorded under MAR and I, and another unit under ŠIR, possibly oil or fat. A further entry ending in the sign AN is broken, and the next lines are lost. Two units are listed under NUN, and one ram is counted. Two entries are filed under KIŠ, but their contents are gone. Near the end, a quantity of twenty and another of two remain, but what they counted is lost.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(Beginning destroyed or broken; line numbers below are sequential within the supplied transliteration) 1. [...] | [...] 2. [...] | [...] SI (horn?), LU2 (man) 3. 1 | MAR~a, I 4. 1 | ŠIR~b, NI~a (oil/fat?) 5. [...] | [...] ... AN 6. [...] | [...] 7. (number case empty or lost) | [...] 8. [...] 2 | NUN~b 9. [...] 1 | ram (UDUNITA~a) 10. [...] | [...] KIŠ 11. [...] | [...] KIŠ 12. [...] 20 (2×N14) | [...] 13. [...] 2 | [...] (rest destroyed)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-09-20/v8-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry