Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · MS 2396 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2396
In plain English
The tablet lists nine people one by one, each counted as one. They are written with sign groups we can only give by sign name: KAŠ ŠE+ŠE; ZATU659; UNUG KI ZATU773; EN GI+GI; ANŠE UDU; KA KU6 (the second sign is the fish sign); SI KISAL; PAP; and PA. A final case on the front holds only the sign BA, and one case is left empty. On the back, the scribe totals the list at nine, labelling the total 'BA SU PAP'. A last case contains the sign GAN, probably the name of the office or person responsible, or a label for the account.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1 (individual): KAŠ~c ŠE~a+ŠE~a 1 (individual): ZATU659 1 (individual): UNUG~a KI ZATU773~a 1 (individual): EN~a GI+GI 1 (individual): ANŠE~e UDU~a 1 (individual): KA~a KU6~a 1 (individual): SI KISAL~b1 1 (individual): PAP~a 1 (individual): PA~a (case): BA (empty case) Reverse 9 (individuals in total): BA SU~a PAP~a (case): GAN~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2431 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2431
In plain English
An itemized tally. One unit goes to the category SIG RAD. Five go to BA, nine to GI and eleven to the EN, an official of high rank. One goes to the KU3 of the institution's house. A further six are listed with no written label. The total on the back is thirty-two, together with a separate small count of three N57 units. The summary is filed under MUN (probably salt), DU, TE and SIG RAD. What exactly was being counted, and who these groups were, is not spelled out.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse (as transliterated): 1. 1 (N57-unit): SIG RAD 2. 5: BA 3. 9: GI 4. 11: EN 5. 1: KU3 of the E2 (house/institution) 6. 6 (N02): [entry without a written label] Reverse (total): 7. 32; 1 (N57), 2 (N57): MUN, DU, TE, SIG RAD (No further lines are given in the transliteration.)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · experimental confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2433 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2433
In plain English
Flock tally. There are 2 animals of a category we can't identify, 4 rams, 2 animals marked with a special qualifier, 5 kids and 1 ewe. A second group has 2 she-goats and 1 more of the qualified animals. The back gives a total of 16 sheep and goats and credits them to 'GI MASZ KI', which is most likely the person or office in charge. The meaning of that name or label is unclear.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 1. 2 (units): UTUA~a (animals of an uncertain category) 2. 4: rams 3. 2: NUN~b (a qualified category of animal) 4. 5 (N02 units): kids 5. 1 (N02 unit): ewe (Case division) 6. 2: she-goats 7. 1: NUN~b (a qualified category of animal) (Case division) Reverse 8. 16 (1 ten and 6 units): small livestock (sheep and goats), in total 9. GI MASZ KI (the official, office or institution responsible; the meaning is unclear)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2434 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2434
In plain English
The ledger runs: 56 units of something now broken off; then a grain quantity (6 large and 3 smaller measures) of the NE/NUNUZ commodity; one Dilmun-type TUN3 implement; one PIRIG-SU item; and a further entry combining a single unit with a cluster of signs for grain, tablet/record and NUNUZ. After a damaged line the second column turns to animals: 8 UTUA-animals, 3 rams, 11 of the NUN category, and 9 kids. The account closes with a heading or authority line — TE, RAD, and the office of the SANGA (temple administrator) — followed by an empty ruled box. The back of the tablet was left blank.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse (column i) 5(N14) 6(N01) — [commodity broken away] 6(N34) 3(N14) — NE~a NUNUZ~a1 1(N01) — TUN3~a, Dilmun(-type) 1(N01) — PIRIG~b1 SU~a[?] — 1(N57) BA |ŠE~a.NAM2| NAM2 DUB~a ZATU694~c NUNUZ~a1 [...] 1(N01)[?] — [sign unread] [...] Obverse (column ii) 8(N01) — UTUA~a[?] 3(N01) — rams (UDUNITA~a) 1(N14) 1(N01) — NUN~b 9(N01) — kids (MAŠ2) — TE RAD~a SANGA~a — (blank ruled case) Reverse: uninscribed.”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2436 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2436
In plain English
This is an early record naming one party with a string of signs (RAD, BU, SI, TE, KITI) and a second with another string (ZATU795, LAM, AN, MUŠ3, URU). It records a quantity written as two of one number sign plus one of another. It then counts two units for a party or office connected with 'salt' and a supervisor, and two units for another called SU. The back sums the account by repeating the same groups of signs, with a few added (RU, KI, HI, SIG). What the goods were and who the people were is still unclear.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[Obverse] [Entry/heading:] RAD BU SI TE KITI — ZATU795 LAM AN MUŠ3 URU (sign groups, probably personal or institutional designations; untranslated) 2(N15) 1(N02) (a quantity, recorded exactly as written); 2(N57): MUN (salt?) — PAP (supervisor / personnel category); 2(N57): SU [Reverse / summary] RAD KITI SI TE BU ZATU795 LAM RU KI HI KI URU AN MUŠ3 SIG RAD”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2437 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2437
In plain English
Here is an account of workers. Three people are listed under the group SAL-ZATU628a-UR-AB2 and two under SAL-ZATU628a-ŠU-ŠU-ME. Two more are listed under UŠ-ŠUR2-BU and another two under DU-EN2-ZATU628a-SAL. The note on the back gives the total: sixty-two people in all. The entries we have add up to only nine, so most of the list must be in the parts of the tablet that are not transcribed here.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse (only the part given in the transliteration; the tablet in the photo holds many more entries) 3: SAL-ZATU628a-UR-AB2 (a female worker or group) 2: SAL-ZATU628a-ŠU-ŠU-ME 2: UŠ-ŠUR2-BU 2: DU-EN2-ZATU628a-SAL Reverse (total) 62 heads (persons)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2438 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2438
In plain English
Flock count: 2 ewes, 20 nanny goats, 28 goats, 27 animals of the kind listed as 'NUN', 4 of the kind listed as 'UTUA', and 10 rams. On the back, the scribe totals them at 91 and labels the total with the signs for sheep, fish, bird and goat. A second, larger figure of 257 follows. The sign after it is damaged and the rest of that line is lost, so we don't know what it counted.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse 2 ewes (U8) 20 nanny goats (UD5~a) 28 goats (MASZ2) 27 (animals of the category) NUN~b 4 (animals of the category) UTUA~a 10 rams (UDUNITA~a) Reverse (Total:) 91: sheep (UDU~a), fish (KU6~a), bird (MUSZEN), goat (MASZ) 257: X [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · MS 2446 — Schøyen Collection, Oslo, Norway
MS 2446
In plain English
The front lists six contributors or holders, perhaps named individuals: E2-DA 2, A-KAŠ 2, URI3-IB 1, MUD 1, KU-AN 1 and E2-SI 2, nine in all. A second column adds a heading or label that we can't fully read. It involves grain (ŠE) and water (A) signs and ends with URI3-IB. The back breaks the animals down by type: 2 nanny goats, 1 animal of a type called UTUA, 3 rams, 1 animal of a type called NUN and 2 kids. The total at the end is 9 small livestock, again credited to URI3-IB.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Obverse col. i 1. 2 (units): E2-DA 2. 2 (units): A-KAŠ 3. 1 (unit): URI3-IB 4. 1 (unit): MUD 5. 1 (unit): KU-AN 6. 2 (units): E2-SI col. ii 7. (heading/subscript, no numeral): LAGAB ZATU659 NAM2 RAD PA ŠE A — URI3-IB Reverse col. i 8. 2: nanny goats (UD5) 9. 1: UTUA (livestock of an unidentified category) 10. 3: rams (UDU-NITA) 11. 1: NUN (livestock of an unidentified category) 12. 2: kids (MAŠ2) col. ii (total) 13. 9: small livestock (UDU TUR), ZATU659 — URI3-IB”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-opus-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry