Chapter 04 · 2112 – 2004 BCE
Ur III · Neo-Sumerian
A bureaucratic golden age, the Code of Ur-Nammu.
~2057 BCE · Ist Ni 01431 (cast: CBS 09541 ?) — Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Istanbul, Turkey
NRVN 1, 298
In plain English
This tablet is a receipt: 822 bricks were handed out as a loan (to be repaid with interest) from the stock kept by the kiln, meant for the storehouse. A man named Lu-ušku'ga signed for them. The transaction is dated to day 12 of the month called "Bricks," in the year that came two years after the building of the Amorite wall — a standard Ur III year-name (equivalent to around the sixth regnal year of king Šu-Suen). The record closes by naming Lu-eškuga, son of Lani, presumably the official who authorized or oversaw the transfer.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“822 bricks, as an interest-bearing loan (ur5-ra), from the bank of the kiln (im-gir4-ra), for delivery to the storehouse (ganun) — Lu-ušku'ga received. Month: "Bricks" (iti sig4-ga), day 12 having passed. Year: "the year after 'the Amorite wall was built'", the year after that. Lu-eškuga, son of Lani.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2052 BCE · Anonymous 497528 — private: anonymous, unlocated
Anonymous 497528
In plain English
This receipt records that 1 5/6 sila of syrup and 10 shekels of fine oil were issued from the stock of a man called Ur-gu'enna, earmarked as supplies for a festival. The transaction was recorded in the month called 'Harvest' and sealed by the scribe Lu-Ningirsu, who signs off at the bottom of the tablet. The document is dated by the year in which the city of Urbilum was destroyed — a standard way Ur III scribes dated their records, referencing a notable military event of that year rather than a numbered year.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1 5/6 sila3 syrup (lal3), 10 gin2 fine oil (ir-nun-oil), from Ur-gu'enna(?), goods for the festival, month: "Harvest" (Še-sag11-ku5?), under seal of Lu-Ningirsu. Year: "Urbilum was destroyed." Lu-Ningirsu, scribe.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · Bod S 182 — Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK
AAICAB 1/3, pl. 223, Bod S 182
In plain English
This tablet records a barley loan: one gur of barley (measured by the bronze-standard gur, intended for flour) was lent out from Ur-lisi to Lugal-gigire, son of Ur-Ištaran. The transaction was sealed by Ur-enna the carpenter, and the record states that the loan document is officially on file. It is dated to the month of Dumuzi, in a year named for some event involving 'the son of the king' — but the rest of that year name is broken and lost. At the bottom, the tablet also names Ur-li the carpenter, son of Lugal-[...], probably identifying the owner of the seal actually impressed on the tablet.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1(aš) gur barley, royal (measure) — barley of the loan, (for) flour, by the bronze gur (measure), from Ur-lisi, in the name of Lugal-gigire, son of Ur-Ištaran — sealed by Ur-en(na), the carpenter; it is at hand (booked). Month: "Dumuzi", year: "the son of the king ..." [broken] Ur-li, the carpenter, son of Lugal-[...].”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · Bod S 187 — Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK
AAICAB 1/3, pl. 224, Bod S 187
In plain English
This tablet is stamped with the governor's official seal, certifying a shipment of 5 fattened oxen and 68 fattened sheep. The livestock are recorded in connection with Nin-tur-tur, who is identified as a beloved child of King Šulgi — apparently a princess with her own staff. Stamped into the clay is the personal seal of Nigar-ki-du10, a chief constable and son of a man named Giri-[...] (the rest of his name is broken away), who declares himself to be this princess's servant. In short: a routine receipt for grain-fed cattle and sheep, sealed by a palace official who served the king's daughter.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Seal of the governor (ensi2): 5 grain-fed oxen, 68 grain-fed sheep — (recipient/authority) Nin-tur-tur, beloved child of Šulgi, the king. (Seal inscription:) Nigar-ki-du10, the chief constable (gal5-la2-gal), son of Giri-[...], is your servant.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · Bod S 189 — Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK
AAICAB 1/3, pl. 224, Bod S 189
In plain English
This is a receipt: Bidu'i-sa's seal is affixed, confirming that he took delivery of 3 gur and 3 barig of dabin-flour (a coarse-ground grain product), which came from Igi-saga. The document identifies Bidu'i-sa as a scribe, son of Ka-ku, and notes that he held the office of cupbearer to the goddess Baba — details recorded as part of his official seal legend rather than as narrative text.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“Seal of Bidu'i-sa; he received (it). 3 gur 3 barig dabin-flour, from Igi-saga, (seal of) Bidu'i-sa, the scribe, son of Ka-ku, cupbearer of Baba.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved) · claude-sonnet-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · LB 0238 — de Liagre Böhl Collection, Netherlands Institute for the Near East, Leiden, Holland
ABAA (KAO 4), 79 P351
De Liagre Böhl Collection, NINO, Leiden / CDLI — LB 0238 (P100193), photographic montage of the clay envelope; converted to WebP without cropping
In plain English
Received: 2 gur of barley by the royal measure, the standard feed allowance for the fattened sheep, together with emmer from Urre-badu. Sealed by Zumzum. Dated to the extra leap month after the barley-harvest month, in the year Karhar was destroyed for the third time. The seal reads: 'Geme-Lamma, high priestess of Baba: Zumzum, the animal-fattener, is your servant.'
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1. 2 gur of barley, (by the) royal (measure), 2. regular allotment for the grain-fed sheep; 3. emmer (of) Urre-badu. 4. Sealed document of Zumzum. 5. Month: extra (month) of Še-sag-ku (barley harvest). 6. Year: Karhar was destroyed for the 3rd time. Seal: 7. Geme-Lamma, 8. high priestess of Baba: 9. Zumzum, the animal-fattener, (is) your servant.”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-01/v9-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · medium confidence
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses
Amar-Suena 01
Royal titulary of Amar-Suena, third king of Ur III: attests the formula 'king of the four quarters' that legitimised Sumerian rulers as universal sovereigns under Enlil's divine mandate.
In plain English
Amar-Suena, whose name Enlil himself proclaimed at Nippur, stood as the unwavering champion of Enlil's temple. He was a man of power, king of Ur, and king of the four quarters of the world.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(1) Amar-Suena, whose name was proclaimed by Enlil in Nibru, the steadfast supporter of Enlil's temple, the powerful man, king of Urim, king of the four quarters.”
Source: Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Royal Inscriptions (ETCSRI), University of Vienna, edited by Gábor Zólyomi et al. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/etcsri/Q000981/
Read the full tablet entry~2050 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses
Amar-Suena 02
In plain English
Amar-Suena declares himself a king whose name Enlil himself proclaimed in the city of Nibru — steadfast champion of Enlil's temple, a man of power, king of Ur, and king of the four quarters of the world.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“(1) Amar-Suena, whose name was proclaimed by Enlil in Nibru, the steadfast supporter of Enlil's temple, the powerful man, king of Urim, king of the four quarters.”
Source: Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Royal Inscriptions (ETCSRI), University of Vienna, edited by Gábor Zólyomi et al. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/etcsri/Q001789/
Read the full tablet entry