Chapter 01 · 4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-022 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 055
In plain English
The tablet records 3 rams of a particular category (marked SZE3) under the entry U4 UR~a. It records 1 more such ram under a chief official (GAL NAM2), with the further notation ŠU MU. Then come two larger counts, 2(N15) 2(N02) ewes and 2(N15) 1(N02) rams. The last entry, AN MAR~a, may name the responsible office or institution, but its meaning is unclear.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“3 SZE3 rams: U4 UR~a 1 SZE3 ram: the chief NAM2 (official), ŠU MU 2(N15) 2(N02) ewes 2(N15) 1(N02) rams AN MAR~a”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-07-008 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 061
In plain English
The heading is damaged. It seems to concern goats(?) and a storehouse, and some kind of delivery. Then comes a list, one unit per entry. One unit goes to RU and someone whose name is lost. The next entry is too broken to read. One unit each goes to the 'small' BU~a, to the AN NAMEŠDA official, and to UB ZI~a. The last two entries are too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] she-goat(?), storehouse(?), ..., delivery(?) 1 (unit): RU [...] [...], [...] 1 (unit), TUR BU~a (= person or entity 'BU~a the small'?) 1 (unit), AN NAMEŠDA (= the NAMEŠDA official?) 1 (unit), UB ZI~a [...], [...] [...], [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-004 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 062
In plain English
This is a fish inventory. It records [...] 4 and 4 (N57) carp, 8 carp of a specially marked kind, perhaps dried or otherwise processed, 634 ordinary fish, and 50 of another fish type. The entries that follow are mostly lost: one mentions a settlement, and the next ones are broken. The closing section names, without numbers, what look like the responsible offices or persons (BU+DU6, GIR3, ZATU714). Two more lines are damaged, then come two unidentified signs. The record ends with Uruk.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] 4 (N01), 4 (N57): suhur-fish (carp) 8 (N01): suhur-fish, hatched variant (SUHUR@t; processed/dried?) 634 (1 N34, 3# N14, 4 N01): fish 50 (5 N14): |SUKUD+SUKUD|~b (a fish category or product) [...]: URU~a1 [...]: [...] |BU~a+DU6~a| GIR3~a ZATU714 [...]: [...] [...]: [...] X X Uruk (UNUG~a)”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-10-011 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 063
In plain English
The tablet begins with one unit for the item or person marked UKKIN×DIN. The next entry is lost. Two small units are booked to SUHUR with the mark BA, and another two to SUHUR with five small units, under the house-sign E2. A list of women follows: one woman marked ZATU676~b, one woman marked 'small small', another woman marked ZATU676~b, and two women marked SAG.ŠU. A final unit goes to SUHUR with five small units, again under the E2 house-sign.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“1 (N01): UKKIN~b×DIN [...]: [...] 2 (N39~a): SUHUR, BA 2 (N39~a): SUHUR, 5 (N57) E2~a×1(N57)@t, 5 (N57) 1 (N01): female worker, ZATU676~b 1 (N01): female worker, TUR TUR 1 (N01): female worker, ZATU676~b 2 (N01): female workers, SAG.ŠU 1 (N01): SUHUR, 5 (N57) E2~a×1(N57)@t”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-012 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 064
In plain English
This is a herd tally. The first entry is lost. Next come 25 she-goats in a category marked BAR, then a heading that cannot be interpreted. Another entry is broken away. After it come thirty-odd young goats listed with wool, and 20 young goats in the BAR category, also with wool. A line of two signs, DA and PA, may name the responsible official or the kind of account. The final line records 187 of something whose label is lost, very likely the overall count.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...] : [...] 2(N14) 5(N01) (= 25): UD5~a (she-goats), BAR ZATU773~a [...] : [...] 3(N14) [...] 1(N01) (= 3[x]1): MASZ2 (kids), SIG2~b (wool) 2(N14) (= 20): MASZ (kids), BAR, SIG2~b (wool) DA~a PA~a 3(N34)# 7(N01)# (= 187): [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 51-01-094 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 065
In plain English
This is a herd tally. It lists 52 DARA4-type rams or bucks, 25 sheep and kids, and 8 sheep of a special ŠE3 class. The next entry is broken. The tally continues with 27 DARA4-type bucks and goats, 52 young kids, 3 more ŠE3-class sheep, and 18 sheep and goats in a separate BAR category. A final note, DA and probably PA, ends the record. Its meaning is unclear, possibly an official's name or a label for the account.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“52 (ram/buck of the DARA4 type), sheep 25 sheep (and) kids 8 ... (ŠE3-class) sheep [...] RU [...] 27 (DARA4-type) bucks (and) goats 52 small kids 3 (ŠE3-class) sheep 18 sheep (and) goats, (BAR-category) DA [PA]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-06-213 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 068
In plain English
The first entry is broken. It lists a group marked by AN and other signs, connected with female workers. Next come 150 female workers of a category marked TUR3 and ME, then 60 under DUB, 10 under LA2-SUG5, and a single entry for ZI-UB with goat-like animals. A further entry, whose number ends in 2, records goat-like animals and sheep together with a longer string of signs (SAG, ŠA3, UR2, HI, DA, PA, AK), perhaps naming an official or office. A large entry of several hundred, with at least 420 preserved, again counts goat-like animals and sheep. The last line is too damaged to read.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“[...]: AN, ZATU788, female (worker), NUNUZ 2(N34) 3(N14) (= 150): female (workers), TUR3, ME 1(N34) (= 60): DUB 1(N14) (= 10): LA2, SUG5 1(N01) (= 1): ZI, UB, DARA4 (ibex/goat), ZATU682 [...] 2(N01) (= [...] 2): IB, DARA4 (ibex/goat), sheep, SUG5, SAG, ŠA3, UR2, HI, DA, PA, AK [...] 7(N34) (= [...] 420): DARA4 (ibex/goat), sheep, IB, SUG5, SAG [...]: [...]”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry~3100 BCE · CUNES 50-11-060 — Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 01, 071
In plain English
The account runs through a short list of entries, each with a count. There are two each for AN SAR AN, for ŠE UR5, for an entry whose name is lost, and for the fish(ermen?) of the courtyard (KU6 KISAL). There are two more for an entry whose sign cannot be identified. Single units go to a male, to a female whose fuller designation is broken, to an official of the TUM house, and to ZATU659. Another entry, whose count is lost, ends in A. The account is attributed to ŠU2 URU. On the back, the docket repeats the heading: ZATU659, ŠU2 URU.
AI-generated reading paraphrase; compare with the translation below.
“2 (N01): AN SAR~b AN 2 (N01): ŠE~a UR5~a 2 (N01): [......] [......]: A 2 (N01): KU6~a KISAL~b1 (fish(ermen)? of the courtyard?) 2 (N01): (an unidentified sign) 1 (N01): GIŠ3~b (male) 1 (N01): [......] SAL (female) 1 (N01): TUM~d E2~a NAM2 (official of the TUM~d house) 1 (N01): ZATU659 ŠU2: URU~a1 ZATU659 ŠU2 URU~a1”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5-5 (2026-11-08/v10-evolved) · claude-opus-5-5 · low confidence
Read the full tablet entry