Reading track · 5,580 tablets
The Law
Justice written down — codes, contracts, and courtrooms, two thousand years before Rome.
The oldest surviving law collection on earth is Sumerian: the laws of Ur-Nammu of Ur, from around 2100 BCE, three centuries before Hammurabi. Its very first provisions set a pattern that still reads as startlingly modern — fixed monetary penalties for injury, distinctions between capital and compensable offenses, protections whose logic a modern lawyer can follow without footnotes.
But the famous "codes" — Ur-Nammu, Lipit-Ishtar, Eshnunna, Hammurabi — are the smallest part of the legal corpus, and probably not codes in our sense at all: scholars still debate whether they were binding statutes, royal self-presentation, scribal science, or all three, since actual court records almost never cite them. The living law is elsewhere: in tens of thousands of contracts — sales, loans, leases, marriages, adoptions, inheritance divisions — each drawn up before named witnesses and sealed, and in trial records like the di-til-la ("case closed") documents of Ur III Girsu, where judges hear testimony, administer oaths, and rule.
Two features of this legal world reward attention. First, the oath: where evidence ran out, parties swore before a god, and the fear of divine perjury did the work of forensic proof. Second, the continuity: the same contract clauses, adjusted for language and dynasty, run from Early Dynastic Sumer to Persian-period Babylon — a legal tradition in continuous documented use for two and a half thousand years, longer than the whole history of the common law.
Anchor tablets below are selected automatically from the corpus — the richest readable witnesses of this subject in each era — and new ones surface as the translation engine works through the backlog. Every translation is labeled with its source; engine translations carry their confidence level on the tablet page.
2900 – 2334 BCE
Early Dynastic
Law before law codes: land-sale documents, the earliest contracts, and the reform edicts of Uruinimgina of Lagash — often described as history's first documented legal reform, aimed, he claims, at protecting the weak from officials.
~2550 BCE · MRAH O.5012 — Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels, Belgium
MRAH O.5012“(obverse) 24 (measures of) [barley ...] Al-mu(?); 24: Uri; 10: Girini — they are the men of the fortress. It is barley of the household of Ša-lu. Onto the boat of Lugal-itida it was loaded. It is the month of Duku. (In) the month of Nig-kiri it was given to him. When 9 days of the month had passed, the men of Adab(?) are its witnesses.”
Source: engine:claude-fable-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved)
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BIN 08, 029
Lugal-nigzu (and) Ur-ni-beda removed the peg in the field; as for the donkey that he had released to him, "I will make replacement," he said to him. Before Ur-su, the herdsman of donkeys. The house ... [...] ... a2 ba KU a (unclear) The case is concluded. For the governor of Nippur. ... [...] is present.
LawEconomy
BIN 08, 038
Obverse 15 gur of barley, the purchase price of 1 sar of house-plot. Nin-pada, wife of Lugal-ša, im-ta-KID(?), received (it). Reverse 1 shekel of silver, 1 gur of barley — [for] KUM-tuš, son of Lugal-[ša], he received. The purchase price [of ......] (the remainder of the reverse is destroyed)
EconomyLaw
BIN 08, 173
Obverse […] 4 shekels of silver; 12 lidga (and) 1 barig of barley; 41 sila of pig fat; 2 gur 1 barig of dates; 1 grass-fed pig — this is the purchase price of Nin-gissu-nani. Ur-lugal, the donkey herdsman, gave it to him. Reverse At the wall(?) of the gate of the palace he set its case straight (i.e. rendered the verdict). Du-du, … [ … ] DA AN [ … ] TI [ … ], the witnesses ("men of the word"), they confirm[ed it]. The … [ … ] … AN … (broken).
LawEconomy2334 – 2154 BCE
Akkadian Empire
Sales, judicial decisions, and servitude documents in Akkadian; the empire standardizes weights and measures on which every later contract depends.
~2270 BCE · OIM A00650 — Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Adab 0650“Lu-Enlil[la], Ur-Enlila the mer[chant] — he brought a lawsuit against him concerning 10 shekels of sil[ver]. Lugal-geš, governor of Adab, judged the case of Ur-Enlil[a] and set it right; he pronounced the oath(-prayer). 1 shekel of sil[ver ... ] [ ... ] Ašgi [ ... ] Šu-[i(?)] was the bailiff.”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved)
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Adab 0815
1 female slave — 15 shekels of silver: An-tum. For 10 shekels of silver, Al-kalla, by the name of the king, … he transferred (it) to him. Ĝissu was the commissioner for it. 1 shekel of silver — bronze — he weighed out to him. 1: Ur-nigar, the merchant; 1: Nin-mashe; 1: Nin-nam — these are its witnesses.
LawEconomy
AuOr 09, 148 4
1. 1/3 (mina) of silver (and) 5 [shekels]; 2. 10 gur of barley; 3. 1 talent of sheep wool — 4. for the purchase price 5. [of 1] kunga-equid. 6. [......] 7. [......] 8. [......] 9. [......]-ne 10. [......]-nim 11. [......]-ilī 12. [......]-takuna 13. 1: Mama. 14. (These are) the elders.
Law
HSS 10, 031
1. 2(eše)? 2¼ iku of field — 2. 3? gur [...], 1 ban 5 sila of barley: 3. purchase (price) of the field, for Erra(-ra). 4. 1 eše 1 iku of field — 5. 1 gur 2 barig of wheat. 6. 1 bur 1 eše of field — 7. 3 barig of emmer, received by ... 8. 1 bur of field — 9. 3 gur 3 barig of barley, 10. received by Zira. 11. Total: 8 gur 3 barig [... gur]. 12. Šu-ilī[su?].
EconomyLaw2112 – 2004 BCE
Ur III · Neo-Sumerian
The richest early court record: di-til-la trial documents from Girsu, the laws of Ur-Nammu, and a state that treats justice as an administrative product like any other.
~2100 BCE · Istanbul Archaeological Museums
Code of Ur-Nammu“If a man has cut off another man's foot — he shall pay ten shekels of silver.”
Source: Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor
The oldest surviving law code in human history. The principle that the state — not the wronged family — defines and enforces justice begins here.
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Laws of Lipit-Eštar (RIME 4.01.05.add10 (Laws of Lipit-Ishtar) composite)
Predates Hammurabi by roughly 150 years, recording Lipit-Eštar's mandate from An and Enlil to 'establish justice' — an early articulation of the Mesopotamian ideology that divine authority underwrites royal law-giving.
LawReligion & MythNRVN 1, 082
10 shekels of silver, as a loan; interest: 5 shekels, at (the rate of) 1 shekel each; from Lu-Nanna, Lugal-magure received. Month: 'kin-inanna' (month VI); year: 'Ibbi-Sin (is) king' — year: Simurrum was destroyed.
LawEconomyNRVN 1, 115
1 1/2 shekels of silver, from Lugal-ezem, Šeš-kalla received. Month: Sig-ga ("brick-making"), he is to pay (it) back — he swore by the name of the king (that he would do so). If he does not pay, he declared that he would pay 3 shekels of silver as a penalty. Month: <Še>-sag-ku, day 21 having passed; year: Simurrum was destroyed.
LawEconomyBrowse all 276 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →
2000 – 1600 BCE
Old Babylonian
Hammurabi's stele — 282 provisions under a relief of the king before the sun god Shamash, lord of justice — plus the everyday flood of contracts and lawsuits that mostly ignore it.
~1754 BCE · Louvre, Paris
Code of Hammurabi (stele)“If a man has destroyed the eye of another man — they shall destroy his eye.”
Source: Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor
Not the first law code, but the most complete and the most famous. Inscribed on a black diorite stele over two meters tall, displayed in a public place — law made visible, law made monumental.
Read the full tablet entrySAOC 44, 67
1 shekel of silver — as interest, 1/6 shekel and 6 grains (per shekel) will be added. From Suen, Anne-babdu received it. In the month of Bricks (Simanu) it is to be repaid. Before Suen-rabi; before Ur-dukuga. Month: NE-NE-gar (Abu). Year: Rim-Sin the king built the temple of Enki in Ur.
LawOB Contracts, pl. G7 no. 69
(obverse) ... [...] (illegible) Enlil-...-[...] (personal name) in Nippur [...] and Isin [...] the bala-service (rotational duty) performed, Ali-[...] he shall not raise a claim [...] he sw[ore] by the name of the king. [Before] Nūr-iya, the nigdaba (requisition) official, ... [...] [Before] ...-ummuhu, the merchant, son of [...] [...] ... (traces; remainder lost)
LawSAOC 44, 96
(obverse) [...] ... barley(?), gur-measure(?) [...] at(?) the harvest(?) ... [It bears interest of ...] [...]-attum [...] ... has/bears [...] [...] ... [...]-tum(?) [...]-e [Before A]hi-ša-gimil (witness); before Lipit-Ištar, the scribe (witness). [Month]: Šu-numun (fourth month). [Year: Ha]mmurabi the king [... a statue(?)] whose face (was of) gold [...].
LawBrowse all 2,440 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →
2000 – 1700 BCE
Old Assyrian
~1900 BCE · MAH 19631 — Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Geneva, Switzerland
RA 059, 036 no. 15“[Mannum]-kī-Ištar [...] (and) [Enna-Su]en, son of Šu-Anum: [for] these [ma]tters the [kārum of Waḫ]šušana, [small and great], gave us (as arbitrators/witnesses), [and ...]”
Source: engine:claude-fable-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved)
Read the full tablet entryBrowse all 169 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →
1600 – 1155 BCE
Middle Babylonian
~1340 BCE · The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Amarna Letter EA 153 — Abi-milku of Tyre“To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun-god, thus speaks Abi-milku, your servant, the dust at your feet: I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times …”
Source: Moran, The Amarna Letters (1992)
Part of the earliest known body of international diplomatic correspondence. Akkadian, written in cuneiform on clay, was the lingua franca of Late Bronze Age statecraft — used between Egypt, the Hittites, Mitanni, Babylon, Assyria, and the Levantine vassals.
Read the full tablet entryBrowse all 384 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →
1400 – 1077 BCE
Middle Assyrian
~1300 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses
Tukulti-Ninurta I 43add“(1) Tukultī-Ninurta (I), king of the world, strong king, king of Assyria, king of the four quarters (of the world), sun(god) of all of the people, exalted priest, chosen of (the god) Aššur and Enlil, attentive ruler, creature of the gods Anu and Ea, the capable, the ferocious, loved one of the gods Šamaš and Adad, valiant dragon, favourite of the gods Marduk and Zababa, exceeding in strength, the strong one whose support is the god Ninurta — the hero of weapons — loved one of the divine power (manifest in) the goddess Ištar’s banquet, true shepherd, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the Upper…”
Source: Royal Inscriptions of Assyria online (RIAo), Munich Open-access Cuneiform Corpus Initiative (MOCCI), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; in association with the RINAP Project, University of Pennsylvania. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/riao/Q009242/
Read the full tablet entry911 – 609 BCE
Neo-Assyrian
Imperial instruments: loyalty oaths and succession treaties enforced by curse, alongside ordinary conveyances and debt notes from the empire's cities.
~655 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses
SAA 14 107. A Court Decision on Behalf of Aššur-šallim (*638-IV) (ADD 0163)“Lawsuit of Aššur-šallim with Ṣalmu-aḫḫē concerning Šulmu-ēreš, the servant of Aššur-šallim, about which they litigated. They brought (the case) before Šēp-šarri, the sartinnu (chief judge). The sartinnu imposed 1½ minas of silver. Ṣalmu-aḫḫē gave 1 mina of silver to Aššur-šallim. There is peace between them. (Whoever) breaks (this agreement) — Aššur (and) Šamaš shall be his adversary at law; he shall give 10 minas of silver. Aššur is his adversary at law. Month of Du'ūzu (IV), eponym year of Aššur-gimilli-terre (638*). Witness Libbusu. Witness Nabû-aḫu-uṣur. Witness Ubru-Nabû, (and) Lā-qē…”
Source: engine:claude-opus-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved)
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SAA 01 135. Dividing an Inheritance (ABL 0179)
(1) [To the ki]ng, my lord: your [servant] Amar-ili. [Good he]alth to the king, my lord! (4) As to the house of Mardû of which the king my lord told (me): "You and the governor of Arbela, divide it evenly between the sons of Mardû and give (each his share)!" (12) We did indeed find a writing-board inside (the house), [just as the king my lord had w]ritten; I sealed it and put it inside (...). (r 7) Now I am sending it to the king, my lord. What are the king my lord's instructions?
LawDaily Life
SAA 06 001. Mušallim-Issar Purchases Slaves (742-XI-26) (ADD 0075)
(1) [Instead of his seal he impressed] his fingernail. (2) [Fingernail of ...]î, [owner of the man being sold]. (fingernail impressions) (Break) (r 6) [If he does not pa]y, he shall not come out. Whoever pays [x m]inas of silver to Mušallim-Issar, shall redeem the man together with his people. (r 10) Witness Sipparanu, tanner of colored leather. (r 11) [Witness] Libbalayu. Witness Aššur-šallim-ahhe, [ch]ariot driver. (r 12) Witness Sin-iddina, 'third man.' (r 13) [Witness] Naṣî. Witness Bihî. (r 14) [Witness I]mmani-Aššur. Witness Yaya. (r 15) [A total of 8 witnesses] from Til-Inurta. (r 16)…
Law
SAA 06 002. Musallim-Issar Purchases 5 Slaves (737-II-9) (ADD 0320)
(1) [Fingernail of NN, U]rdu, A[m..., ...]aya, and Na'[di-...]. (fingernail impressions) (3) El-tuklatua, Mumar-ili, Šamaš-le'i, Issar-da''ininni, and Mukinnat-Issar, a total of five persons — (6) Mušallim-Issar has contracted and bought them for 74 minas of copper. (8) The money is paid completely. Lawsuit or litig[ati]on is void. (r 1) Witness Qurdi-Nergal, Ṭabussu. (r 2) Witness Urdî, son of Susû. (r 3) Witness Aššur-aplu-iddina. Witness Ubrî, oil-presser. (r 5) Witness Ninuayu, [...]. (r 6) Witness Qurdi-[...]. (r 7) Month Iyyar (II), 9th day, [eponym year of] Bel-emur[anni].
LawBrowse all 1,037 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →
539 – 330 BCE
Achaemenid Persian
~430 BCE · RMC 067 — Rare Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, New York, USA
CUSAS 15, 067“3 shekels, less its fourth (part), of silver, belonging to Tatte-Eduru, son of Talīmu, (is a claim) against Aradiya, son of Mudû. In the month Simānu (III) the silver — the silver, 3 shekels less its fourth (part) — in the city Qatibe he shall pay. Witnesses: Tabnēa, son of Enlil-bāni; Mašê, son of Šamaš-zēr-ibni; Šamaš-šu(?), son of Balāṭu; and the priest (šangû) Rīmūt-Maš, son of Ḫanšâ-Eduru. City Qatibe. Month Addaru (XII), day 29, year 7 of Cambyses, king of Babylon, [king] of the lands.”
Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-07-12/v7-evolved)
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Browse all 457 law tablets of this period in the catalogue →