4000 – 3100 BCE
Uruk Period
The birth of the city, the birth of writing.
In the marshlands of southern Iraq, the world's first true cities rise. Uruk, the largest, may have held forty thousand souls. Around 3300 BCE, in its temple administration, accountants invent something new: marks pressed into clay to count things. Writing is born — not as poetry, but as bookkeeping.
Primary sources
Tablets from this period
1783 tablets dated to Uruk Period — showing 24 below; browse all 1783.
Kish Tablet
Marks the boundary between proto-writing and writing. We can see signs being used systematically — but not yet phonetically. The leap to recording speech itself comes a few centuries later.
Writing & LiteratureATU 5, pl. 013, W 6710,a
1. 1(N14) 3(N01), [commodity-sign ZATU678] — male workers (ERIM~a) 2. 1(N14), [commodity-sign ZATU678] — [sign ZATU765] 3. 5(N01), [sign ZATU718?] 4. 5(N01), woman/female (SAL) 5. 5(N01), PAP~a (supervisory/summary marker) 6. 1(N14), copper(?) (URUDU~a?) 7. 4(N14) 8(N01), [total, no commodity given]
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 071, W 9579,cc
Obverse: 2(N01), AB2 NUN~a ZATU639 LAM~b NIMGIR GU4 (2 units: cow [qualified by] NUN~a, ZATU639, LAM~b, herald, ox) 1(N01), AB2 X BA# [...] (1 unit: cow [qualified by] the unread sign X; disbursed(?) — remainder broken) 1(N01), AB2 SZE~b UNUG~a (1 unit: cow [qualified by] barley, Uruk) 4(N01), AB2# GU4 ZATU639 UNUG~a (4 units: cow(?), ox, ZATU639, Uruk)
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 077, W 9579,dv
1. 2(N34) 2(N01) — [designation:] NUN 2. 1(N34) 2(N14) — she-goats (UD5) 3. 4(N14) 9(N01) [...] — [...] wethers / castrated male sheep (UDUNITA) 4. 4(N14) 1(N01) — [designation:] NIR-UKKIN-UTUA 5. 7(N34) 3(N14) 8(N01) — sheep (UDU), disbursed (BA)
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 089, W 9656,ab
(Obverse, case 1) 1(N01) — |1(N58).BAD~a| (case 2) 1(N01) — ZATU689 (case 3) [...] — ZAG~b [...] (case 4) 1(N01) — ZATU693, UKKIN~a (case 5) 1(N01) — AK~a (case 6) 1(N01) [...] — [...] (Reverse/final case) [...] 9(N01) — [...] KU6~a NUN~b
Economy
ATU 7, pl. 018, W 19416,a
1. 2(N14) — MA (vessel/boat-sign), ZATU735~b (unidentified sign) 2. 2(N14) — GU, SIG2~b, HAŠḪUR (apple/orchard-fruit) 3. 2(N01) — DIN, GAN~c×LAGAB~b (compound field/enclosure sign) 4. 2(N01) — GAN~c×X (compound sign, second element illegible) 5. 1(N14)# — GAN~b 6. [...] GI, SAR~a׊E~a (compound sign), DA~a 7. [...] — DIN 8. 7(N01)# — MA 9. 2(N34) — HAŠḪUR (apple/orchard-fruit) 10. 2(N14) — MA, ZATU735~b 11. SAR~a׊E~a#, A#, [...]
Economy
MS 3009
(Obverse) 2(N14) , U2~b DI — 20 units of fodder/plant-material, [sign] DI 3(N14) 4(N01) , ZATU842 EN~a — 34 units of [ZATU842], (for/under) the EN (lord/high official) 2(N14) , UNUG~a — 20 units, (of/at) Uruk , — (word/entry divider) 2(N14) , SAG IB~a — 20 units, SAG-IB (a category or personnel/commodity heading) 3(N14) 2(N01) , ERIN — 32, troop-personnel/labor-gang 3(N14) , NUNUZ~a2 — 30, NUNUZ (grain/seed category) 2(N34) 3(N14) 6(N01) , KISZ GAL~a# SANGA~a# EN~a#? [...] — (large total sign) 36, total/sum(?), the great sanga-official, the EN (lord) [...broken...] (Reverse: broken/effaced by…
Economy
MS 3010
(Numerical/administrative notation tablet — proto-cuneiform, no verbal syntax; each line records a count and an associated sign-group) 1. 1(N01) — SAL ("woman"/female category) 2. 6(N01) — ŠA3~a1 (compound sign, "interior/heart"-element, uncertain commodity or institutional designation) 3. 2(N01) — NINDA2×X (compound bread/ration sign with attached qualifier) 4. 1(N01) — KUR~a, |U4×1(N57)| ("highland/foreign-land" sign together with a compound U4-numeral sign) 5. 9(N01) — X X (two signs, illegible/unidentified due to surface damage) 6. 1(N01) — DU8~c×HI(?) (compound sign, reading of the HI-el…
Economy
MS 3160
1. 5(N01), PAP~a, UZ — "5 (N01-units): PAP~a [supervisory/summary mark], UZ [commodity/bird sign]" 2. 1(N14), SI NAGA E2~b(?) — "1 (N14-unit): SI [horn(?)] NAGA [sign, uncertain] E2~b [house/storehouse, sign damaged]" 3. 4(N01), SZUBUR — "4 (N01-units): Šubur [personal name or worker-class designation]" 4. 3(N01), EZEM~c — "3 (N01-units): EZEM [festival-sign, variant c]" 5. 7(N01), PA~a — "7 (N01-units): PA~a [overseer/category mark]" 6. 4(N14) 2(N01), BARA2~a — "4 (N14-units), 2 (N01-units): BARA2~a [institutional/dais category]" 7. 6(N14), SZE~a BA ERIN — "6 (N14-units) of barley: disbursed…
Economy
MS 3171
1. 5(N01) units: sheep (UDU) — DIM(?) 2. 5(N01) units: HAL — PAP (supervisory/summary marker) 3. 5(N01) units: ŠUR — [illegible sign] 4. 4(N01) units: ZATU678(?) [undeciphered sign] 5. 3(N14) units: LAGAB×(HI×N04) [compound sign, undeciphered] 6. 4(N01) units: ZATU753 [undeciphered sign] 7. 6(N01) units: goat (MAŠ2) 8. 3(N01) units: BIR — cow (AB2) 9. 4(N01) units: GA2×NUN [compound sign, undeciphered] 10. 5(N01) units: PA — ZATU659(?) [undeciphered sign] 11. 3(N01) units: DA 12. ŠUR [no quantity given] 13. URU (settlement/city sign) — 8(N57) units
Economy
MS 4485
1(N01) , GAL ("great/large") — SZU2 ("into the hand" / receipt marker) — 3(N57) 1(N01) , GESZTU ("ear") — SZIM (aromatic/resin) — SZU ("hand") 1(N01) , SI4 (sign, meaning uncertain) 1(N01) , GAN2(?) ("field") — UR3xMASZ (compound sign, meaning uncertain) 1(N01) , SI ("horn") — UR3 (sign, meaning uncertain) 1(N01) , ZATU844 (unidentified sign) — AMAR ("calf/young animal") (damaged) — X X [...] (illegible/broken)
Economy
AoF 30, 238,1
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — AoF 30, 238,1. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 003, W 6108
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 003, W 6108. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 010, W 6611
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 010, W 6611. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 014, W 6738,a
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 014, W 6738,a. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 014, W 6738,b
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 014, W 6738,b. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 015, W 6748,b
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 015, W 6748,b. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 035, W 9123,b
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 035, W 9123,b. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 037, W 9123,w
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 037, W 9123,w. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 038, W 9123,ac
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 038, W 9123,ac. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,c
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,c. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,e
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,e. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,g
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 046, W 9206,g. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy
ATU 5, pl. 051, W 9312,f
Catalogue entry from CDLI (Uruk IV (ca. 3350-3200 BC)) — ATU 5, pl. 051, W 9312,f. No scholarly translation has been published; the transliteration is from the ATF (CDLI's Atf-Friendly format).
Economy